Article

The American Home Front During World War II: Enemies on the Home Front

Color illustration of a white man in a suit and wearing a Civil Defense helmet and armband holding a worried-looking white child. Behind them are suggestions of flames and a representation of the sign that V Homes can display.
“Let ‘em come.. V Homes are Ready! Make Yours a V Home Now!” Billboard sign, Office of War Information, ca. 1942-1945.

Collection of the National Archives and Records Administration (NAID: 514856).

Black and white newspaper photo. In the foreground, a soldier holds a piece of metal wreckage. Above him, another soldier inspects damage to a walkway that has had a hole blown through it.
Some of the damage done by the Japanese submarine raid at Ellwood oil field, California. Kitsap Sun, February 23, 1942.

Kitsap Sun (1942) “Some of Damage Wrought by Sub Raid on Coast.” Kitsap Sun (Bremerton, Washington), February 25, 1942, p. 1.

The attacks of December 7, 1941 that began at Pearl Harbor were not the only targets of America's enemies. By the time World War II was over, Japanese forces had attacked the US mainland and almost all American territories in the Pacific. Some of these places of the Greater United States fell under enemy occupation. [1] In the Atlantic, German U-boats targeted cargo ships. Germany, Japan, and Russia all had operatives and spies living and working across the country. They planned sabotage missions and sent sensitive information to America’s enemies. Even England had spies posted in the US. Across the Greater US, Civilian Defense volunteers learned to identify planes by sight and sound, worked to enforce blackout mandates, and took first aid courses. Elsewhere, American civilians lost their homes and their lives.[2]


Enemy Attacks

Once the US formally entered the war, Germany sent U-boats into American waters. They targeted merchant cargo vessels up and down the East Coast and in the Caribbean. Their goal was to cut Europe off from American supplies, and to cut American industry off from needed materials. Within eight months, the Germans had sunk hundreds of merchant ships and disrupted the transportation of millions of tons of raw materials, fuel, and supplies. Afraid of losing vessels, the US stopped shipping food, supplies, and fuel to Puerto Rico. The US also stopped importing Puerto Rican products like rum. This hobbled the economy of the island. Afraid of losing tourist business, several coastal cities on the US mainland chose not to enforce blackout orders. The result: U-boat crews had no problem seeing and sinking cargo vessels silhouetted against the city lights. [3] They sank several ships close enough to shore that beachgoers were witnesses. In 1942, when the US began protecting cargo ships with military convoys, attacks by U-boats virtually stopped.

In the Pacific, Japanese forces repeatedly attacked (and in some cases occupied) the Greater American home front. Planes and submarines reached as far west as the Philippines and attacked Fort Stevens in Oregon and the Ellwood oil field in Goleta near Santa Barbara, California. Dutch Harbor in Alaska was bombed, and Japanese forces invaded the Alaskan islands of Attu and Kiska. The Japanese also targeted forests in Oregon. The goal was to cause panic, destroy needed lumber, and divert labor from production to fire fighting. Attacks on Hawai’i continued into March 1942, including a second attack on Pearl Harbor. Civilian targets included areas on Maui, Kaua’i, and the Big Island. [4] Elsewhere in the Pacific, Japanese vessels destroyed the settlements on Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands in 1941. Two of the colonists (part of the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project) were killed during the attack on Howland Island.[5] When Japan attacked the Naval station on American Samoa in January of 1942, several shells hit residential homes and businesses. [6]
A color photograph looking up a small rise of grasses at the façade of Battery Russel. It is a grey, boxy structure built of concrete. No windows or doors exist anymore. The sky above is bright blue with wisps of cloud.
Battery Russell at Fort Stevens, Oregon. Photo by Allan Hutchinson-Maxwell, 2023.

Allan Hutchinson-Maxwell, used with permission.

In 1941 and 1942, Wake Island, Guam, the Philippines, and parts of Alaska were captured by Japanese forces. Civilians on Wake Island, Guam, and the Philippines who survived the conquering battles were subject to terrible conditions under Japanese occupation. This included forced labor, eviction from their homes, family separation, starvation, imprisonment, torture, and execution. Homes, businesses, and infrastructure were damaged and destroyed.[7] Additional damage and death happened as American forces fought to retake these territories.[8]

And then there were the balloons. Late in the war, from November 1944 to April 1945 Japan launched over 9,000 balloons called Fu-Go. They carried anti-personnel and fire bombs into the recently-discovered Pacific jet stream. Their goal was to reach North America and cause damage. [9] About 300 of the balloons made the trip into the Greater United States, reaching as far east as Michigan. This was the first intercontinental weapon in modern times. Fu-Go balloons resulted in forest fires and temporarily cut power to the Manhattan Project. One also caused the death of six Americans in Oregon when they found it during a picnic outing. [10]

Black and white drawings of an assembled FuGo balloon and its parts. They include the bomb, battery, release mechanism, and others.
Parts of a FuGo balloon, ca. 1945.[19]

From the Japanese World War II Balloon Bombs Collection, National Air and Space Museum Archives (NASM-NASM.XXXX.0558-M0000012-00250).

Covert Operatives

Germany, Japan, Russia, and Britain all had spies working across the Greater United States leading up to and during World War II. An expanded network of spies in Latin America included those for Spain, who, though technically neutral, sided with Germany.[11]

German U-boats brought at least 10 German operatives to America. In June 1942, submarines landed four spies each on beaches in New York and Florida. Armed with money and explosives, their job was to sabotage military production and cause fear. In 1944, U-boats landed two spies on a beach in Maine. The operatives had made their way to New York City and Chicago to carry out their plans by the time the FBI captured them. Some occupants of German U-Boats captured or killed were also probably spies on their way to being deployed. [12]

Not all German spies arrived by submarine. Many had been living and working in the United States for years and several were naturalized citizens. Some were working aboard the SS America as it traversed the Panama Canal Zone, collecting information and recruiting accomplices. The FBI broke up at least four German spy rings between 1938 and 1942, arresting and charging 51 spies (men and women). Some were recruited to work for the US as double agents.[13]
Black and white photo of a storefront. The awning reads “Velvalee Dickinson.” In the window are several dolls and accessories.
Doll shop in New York City that Velvalee Dickinson used as a front for her spying on behalf of Japan during World War II. FBI Photo.

Collections of the FBI.

Spies for Japan, some of whom were American citizens, included several in Hawai’i, the Philippines, and a doll seller in New York City. Even early on during the buildup to World War II, Japanese operatives were working in the US, including former Navy Yeoman First Class Harry T. Thompson and former Navy Lieutenant Commander John S. Farnsworth. Much closer to the attack on Pearl Harbor, Takeo Yoshikawa was using his cover at Japan’s foreign ministry on Oahu to report on naval deployments, arrivals, and departures. He worked with a small team of trusted drivers and with the knowledge of his superiors at the foreign ministry. One of his chosen observation points was at the Pan American Clipper landing at Pearl City. Yoshikawa also worked with a Nazi spy stationed in Hawai’i. Authorities arrested and convicted the German spy. Yoshikawa was well on his way to Japan as part of a diplomatic exchange before authorities discovered his role.

Not all those spying for Japan were of Japanese ancestry. Authorities charged at least 18 white people and convicted at least 10 of them. While no person of Japanese ancestry living in the US was convicted of any serious act of espionage or sabotage during World War II, 18 white people were convicted as Japanese operatives. Among those 10 was Velvalee Dickinson. By coding ship and troop movements as repairs to dolls in a series of letters, she conveyed critical information to the Japanese and contacts in Argentina.[14]

Black and white phot of a room full of desks with mostly white women seated at them, working. There is at least one man present.
US Army Signals Intelligence Service cryptologists working at Arlington Hall, Virginia, ca. 1943. Employed as a linguist advisor, Soviet spy William Weisband, Sr. infiltrated the “Russian Section” at Arlington Hall. The US only found out he was a spy in 1950.

Collections of the US Army Archives.

Before the United States entered World War II, Russia and Germany had been uneasy allies. But in June 1941, Germany invaded Russia.[15] With a common enemy, Russia became part of the Allied forces. Even so, several Russian spies were operating in the US during World War II, including as many as five spy rings.[16] Many operatives were serving in the US military or working for the federal government, including as part of the Manhattan Project and those developing jet fighters and other military technology. Among them were Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Although their guilt remains contested, they were executed at Sing Sing prison in New York in 1953 for sharing atomic secrets with the Russians. Morris and Lona Cohen, who got full plans of the atomic bomb to the Russians 12 days before the Trinity Test, escaped the US before capture. They were eventually arrested in Britain, but spent the rest of their lives in Russia as part of a prisoner exchange.[17]

British intelligence operatives, unlike the others, were here with the grudging blessing of the US government. They also worked behind the government’s back to encourage the US to enter the war. Through the British intelligence outpost in New York City, Winston Churchill worked to convince the United States to enter the war. At the same time, FBI agents were receiving training in espionage and counter-espionage from the British.[18]

Attacks on the Greater United States home front and the presence of German, Japanese, and Russian spies led to reactions fueled by fear and national security.
This article was written by Megan E. Springate, Assistant Research Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Maryland, for the NPS Cultural Resources Office of Interpretation and Education.

[1] These were: Alaska Territory; American Samoa; Baker Island; Canton Island; the Commonwealth of the Philippines; Guam; Hawai’i Territory; Howland Island; Jarvis Island; Johnston Atoll; Midway Atoll; Palmyra Atoll; Wake Island. Not attacked: Canton Island, Enderbury Island, and the Panama Canal Zone.

[2] To be designated a V-Home (a program of the Office of Civilian Defense) certain criteria needed to be met. Homes that observed blackouts, did not have excess flammables, had protective equipment and a “refuge room” earned the right to display a V-Home sticker. They were also encouraged to buy war bonds, participate in material drives, and not spread rumors. 

[3] Domenech Abreu 2021; Gannon 1990: 186, 345; Kennedy 1999: 566.

[4] Barnett 2020/2021; Graff 2021; Young 2019. The Japanese targeted Battery Russell, part of Fort Stevens. There was little damage to the Fort as most shells hit a nearby baseball field. Fort Stevens was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 22, 1971. Heightened nerves after the Japanese attacks in California led to what is now known as “the Battle of Los Angeles.” What was likely a weather balloon triggered a flood of anti-aircraft fire from Los Angeles and elsewhere. Shells damaged buildings and cars in LA, and five people died in car crashes or from heart attacks. The Pacific Rim Peace Memorial dedicated to those at Fort Stevens and those aboard the Japanese submarine was installed near Battery Russell in 1992. It reads, in part: “Near this place on the night of June 21, 1942, they faced each other when the Japanese submarine shelled Fort Stevens, making it the first foreign attack on a continental military installation since the War of 1812. May peace between our nations be everlasting.”

[5] Congress.gov 2011; Hirsh n.d.; Horner 2013: 73-75; Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge 2007: 3-16 to 3-17. The two colonists killed by Japanese attacks were Joseph Keliʻihananui and Richard "Dickey" Whaley. The US military finally picked up the surviving colonists in February 1942. They also destroyed any remaining buildings and facilities to keep them from being taken by the enemy.

[6] National Park Service 2020.

[7] In Manila, destruction included 70% of the utilities; 75% of the factories; 100% of the business district, and 80% of the residential district (Tharoor 2015).

[8] Palomo and Aguon 2023; Tharoor 2015.

[9] Rizzo 2013.

[10] Mikesh 1973: 69-78. The Mitchell Recreation Area, including a memorial to the six killed by the exploding Fu-Go, was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 20, 2003.

[11] Spyscape n.d.

[12] Commander Eastern Sea Frontier 1942, 1944; Cox, S. 2017; Federal Bureau of Investigation n.d. d; German Navy 1942; Holzwarth 2019; Kellert 2012; Rouse 1982. A Coast Guardsman from the Amagansett U.S. Life-Saving and Coast Guard Station on Long Island (listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 27, 2018) reported the arriving German spies. One of the spies, George Dasch, traveled to DC to turn himself in and identify the other spies. While in DC he stayed at the Mayflower Hotel (listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 14, 1983). The FBI arrested one of the other spies while he was staying at the Sheridan Plaza Hotel in Chicago (listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 21, 1980). After a secret trial at the Department of Justice building in DC (part of the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site), President Roosevelt sentenced six of the eight to death and the other two to long prison terms. The executions took place at the DC jail. A memorial to them, placed by the National Socialist White People’s Party (formerly known as the American Nazi Party), was found in the Blue Plains area of DC. Officials removed it in 2010 (Cox, J. 2017). 

Targets of the landed spies included Hell Gate Bridge in New York City; the power grid at Niagara Falls; the railroad infrastructure at Altoona, PA; and unspecified locks along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers.

Targets Represented in the Historic American Engineering Record
Targets Represented in the National Register of Historic Places
[13] These were the Duquesne Spy Ring, the Ludwig Spy Ring (also known as the Joe K. Spy Ring), the Rumrich Spy Ring, and the Vonsiatsky Spy Ring. Two members of the Duquesne Spy Ring posed as crew on the SS America in the Panama Canal Zone.  Rene Froehlich, part of the Ludwig Spy Ring, was a US Army private stationed at Fort Jay on Governors Island, New York. After capture, Kurt Ludwig (leader of the Ludwig Spy Ring) was eventually imprisoned at Alcatraz as prisoner no. 596. You can view his entry in the warden’s notebook via the FBI. Bernews 2011; Federal Bureau of Investigation 2014, n.d. b; n.d c, n.d. e, n.d. g, n.d. i; Hastedt 2011: 481; Kellert 2012; Panama Canal Museum 2018. The Wading River Radio Station (Benson House) on Long Island, New York was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 4, 2018. It was the location where double agent ND-98 and the FBI transmitted counterintelligence to America’s enemies. Fort Jay was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 27, 1974. Alcatraz was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 23, 1976 and designated a National Historic Landmark on January 17, 1986. Part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, Alcatraz is managed by the NPS.

[14] Cal 2018; Densho 2013; Federal Bureau of Investigation n.d. f, n.d. h; Loureiro 1989; National Park Service 2023; Time 1940; Zimmer 2017. Both Farnsworth and Thompson became Japanese agents after the Navy discharged them for poor behavior – drinking, recklessness, and in the case of Thompson, homosexuality (Zimmer 2017). The US Naval Base at Pearl Harbor is documented in the Historic American Building Survey. It was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 29, 1964 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. The Federal Reformatory for Women in Alderson, West Virginia where Velvalee Dickinson was imprisoned is documented in the Historic American Building Survey.

[15] In the days before the agreement, talks about an alliance between Britain, France, and Russia had failed. Roberts 2006: 30-32.

[16] Sudoplatov and Sudoplatov 1994: 217.

[17] Associated Press 1995; Carr 2016: 136; Cowell 1999; Ding 2018; FBI n.d. a; Hagedorn 2021: 67-69; Rhodes 1996: 190; Roberts 2003; Sudoplatov and Sudoplatov 1994: 217; Udsin 2005. Some of the places that Russian operatives were working during World War II include: 
[18] Boyd 2006; FBI 2016; Gage 2022; Ignatius 1989. Prior to World War II, the FBI had predominantly been focused on “crime, delinquency, and vice.” The offices of the BSC (British Security Coordination) took up three floors of the Rockefeller Center in Manhattan. The FBI was also operating out of the Rockefeller Center under cover as the Importers and Exporters Service Company in Room 4332. Rockefeller Center was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 23, 1987.

[19] You can view the full collection of materials about FuGo balloons in the Smithsonian’s Air and Space Museum Archives. It includes Japanese propaganda, newspaper clippings, photos of Japanese women sewing the balloons, a Japanese launch site, balloons recovered in the US, and more.
 

Associated Press (1995) “Morris Cohen, 84, Soviet Spy Who Passed Atom Plans in 40’s.” [Obituary] New York Times, July 5, 1995, Section D, p. 9. 

Barnett, Glenn (2020/2021) “War on the West Coast.” Warfare History Network. 

Bernews (2011) “Bermuda’s WWII Espionage Role.” Bernews (Bermuda), November 11, 2011. 

Boyd, William (2006) “The Secret Persuaders.” The Guardian (London, UK), August 19, 2006. 

Cal, Ben (2018) “Japanese Invasion on PH 77 Years Ago Recalled.” Philippine News Agency, December 8, 2018. 

Carr, Barnes (2016) Operation Whisper: The Capture of Soviet Spies Morris and Lona Cohen. ForeEdge, an imprint of the University Press of New England, Lebanon, New Hampshire.

Commander Eastern Sea Frontier (1942) “War Diary, June 1942, Chapter VI: The Amagansett Incident.” War Diary 12/1/41 to 6/30/42, pp. 538-549. Collection of the National Archives and Records Administration. 
--- (1944) “War Diary, November 1944, Chapter II: Nazi Agents Land at Hancock, Maine.” War Diary 11/1/44 to 12/31/44, pp. 8-9. Collection of the National Archives and Records Administration. 

Congress.gov (2011) “Text - H.Res.388 - 112th Congress (2011-2012): Acknowledging the contributions and sacrifices of the young men who served as colonists on behalf of the United States in the Federal occupation of the islands of Howland, Baker, Jarvis, Canton, and Enderbury from 1935 through 1942, facilitating the United States claim of jurisdiction over such islands.” Congress.gov, September 6, 2011. 

Cowell, Alan (1999) “Theodore Hall, Prodigy and Atomic Spy, Dies at 74.” New York Times, November 10, 1999, Section C, p. 31. 

Cox, John Woodrow (2017) “Six Nazi Spies Were Executed in DC. White Supremacists Gave Them A Memorial – On Federal Land.” Washington Post, June 23, 2017. 

Cox, Samuel J. (2017) “Attacks on the U.S. Mainland in World War I and World War II.” H-Gram 10(6). 

Densho (2013) “Tachibana Case.” Densho, March 19, 2013. 

Ding, Julia (2018) “Chistopher Andrew on the Lost History of Global Intelligence.” Yale Macmillan Center, November 13, 2018. 

Domenech Abreu, Ligia T. (2021) “Nazi Blockade of the Caribbean in 1942: Effects on Puerto Rico.” Encyclopedia of Puerto Rico, June 27, 2021. 

Federal Bureau of Investigation (2016) “A Look Back: A Small Office with a Big Mission: The FBI’s World War II-Era Cover Company at Rockefeller Center.” FBI News, December 28, 2016. 
--- (2014) “Operation Bodyguard: FBI Recognizes WWII Counterintelligence Landmark in New York.” FBI News, June 9, 2014. 
--- (n.d. a) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Atom Spy Case/Rosenbergs.” FBI History.
--- (n.d. b) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Duquesne Spy Ring.” FBI History.
--- (n.d. c) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Ludwig Spy Ring.” FBI History. 
--- (n.d. d) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Nazi Saboteurs and George Dasch.” FBI History. 
--- (n.d. e) “Famous Cases & Criminals: ND-98: Case of the Long Island Double Agent.” FBI History. 
--- (n.d. f) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Pearl Harbor Spy.” FBI History. 
--- (n.d. g) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Rumrich Nazi Spy Case.” FBI History. 
--- (n.d. h) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Velvalee Dickinson, the ‘Doll Woman.’” FBI History. 
--- (n.d. i) “Famous Cases & Criminals: Vonsiatsky Espionage.” FBI History.

Gage, Beverly (2022) “How World War II Helped Forge the Modern FBI.” Smithsonian Magazine, November 22, 2022. 

Gannon, Michael (1990) Operation Drumbeat: The Dramatic True Story of Germany’s First U-Boat Attacks Along the American Coast in World War II. Harper & Row, New York.

German Navy (1942) “German BdU War Diary (26 May 1942).” BDU War Logs, 1 Apr. 1942 – 30 Jun. 1942. Collection of the Navy Department Library Special Collection. Online via the Naval History and Heritage Command. 

Graff, Cory (2021) “The Second Pearl Harbor Attack.” National World War II Museum, November 7, 2021. 

Hagedorn, Ann (2021) Sleeper Agent: The Atomic Spy in America Who Got Away. Simon & Schuster, New York.

Hastedt, Glenn P. (2011) Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations, volume 2. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California.

Hirsh, Heidi (n.d.) “The Hui Panalā’au Story of the Equatorial Pacific Islands of Howland, Baker, and Jarvis: 1935-1942.” Discovering the Deep: Exploring Remote Pacific Marine Protected Areas, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

Holzwarth, Larry (2019) “German Sabotage and Espionage in the United States During WWII.” History Collection, December 14, 2019. 

Horner, Dave (2013) The Earhart Enigma: Retracing Amelia’s Last Flight. Pelican Publishing Company, Gretna.

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Mikesh, Robert C. (1973) Japan’s World War II Balloon Bomb Attacks on North America. Smithsonian Annals of Flight No. 9. 

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--- (2020) “National Park of American Samoa: World War II.” National Park Service, April 23, 2020. 

Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex (2007) “Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment.” US Fish and Wildlife Service, August 2007. Archived: 

Palomo, Tony and Katherine Aguon (2023) “WWII: From Occupation to Liberation.” Guampedia, January 7, 2023. 

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Rhodes, Richard (1996) Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon and Schuster, New York.

Rizzo, Johnna (2013) “Japan’s Secret WWII Weapon: Balloon Bombs.” National Geographic, May 27, 2013. 

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Roberts, Sam (2003) “The Nation: The Rosenbergs, 50 Years Later; Yes, They Were Guilty. But of What Exactly?” New York Times, June 15, 2003. 

Rouse, Parke Jr. (1982) “The Old Navy: Under the Cloak of Night.” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 108(6):952. 

Spyscape (n.d.) “Salsa & Spies: The Tangled Tales of Madrid, Latin America and the US.” Spyscape. 

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Zimmer, Phil (2017) “Takeo-Yoshikawa and the Spies Behind the Pearl Harbor Attack.” Warfare History Network, March 2017.  
 

Table of Contents


1. Introduction

2. The American Home Front Before World War II

3. The American Home Front and the Buildup to World War II

3B The Selective Service Act and the Arsenal of Democracy

4. The American Home Front During World War II

4A A Date That Will Live in Infamy

4A(i) Maria Ylagan Orosa

4B Enemies on the Home Front

4C Incarceration and Martial Law

4D Rationing, Recycling, and Victory Gardens

4D(i) Restrictions and Rationing on the World War II Home Front

4D(ii) Food Rationing on the World War II Home Front

4D(ii)(a) Nutrition on the Home Front in World War II
4D(ii)(b) Coffee Rationing on the World War II Home Front
4D(ii)(c) Meat Rationing on the World War II Home Front
4D(ii)(d) Sugar: The First and Last Food Rationed on the World War II Home Front

4D(iii) Rationing of Non-Food Items on the World War II Home Front

4D(iv) Home Front Illicit Trade and Black Markets in World War II
4D(v) Material Drives on the World War II Home Front

4D(v)(a) Uncle Sam Needs to Borrow Your… Dog?

4D(vi) Victory Gardens on the World War II Home Front

4D(vi)(a) Canning and Food Preservation on the World War II Home Front

4E The Economy

4E(i) Currency on the World War II Home Front

4E(ii) The Servel Company in World War II & the History of Refrigeration

5. The American Home Front After World War II

5A The End of the War and Its Legacies

5A(i) Post World War II Food

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Last updated: November 16, 2023