1. John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierra (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916), pp.116-20.

2. Joseph LeConte, "Ramblings through the High Sierra," Sierra Club Bulletin 3 (January 1900): 33-35. This is a reprint of his 1875 work, A Journal of Ramblings, privately published.

3. Ansel Adams with Mary Street Alinder, Ansel Adams: An Autobiography (Boston: Little, Brown and Co. with New York Graphic Society Books, 1985), pp.50, 53.

4. Francois E. Matthes, The Incomparable Valley: A Geologic Interpretation of Yosemite, ed. Fritiof Fryxell (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1950). This should be supplemented with Jeffrey P. Schaffer, "Pleistocene Lake Yosemite and the Wisconsin Glaciation of Yosemite Valley," California Geology 30 (November 1977): 243-48; and N. King Huber, "The Geologic Story of Yosemite National Park" (Bound typescript. Yosemite National Park Research Library, n.d.).

5. Matthes, The Incomparable Valley.

6. Elizabeth Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, rev. James Synder and Craig Bates (Yosemite: Yosemite Natural History Association in cooperation with the National Park Service, 1977), p.3; Linda Wedel Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987), I:1-13. I have also benefited from personal communications with Craig Bates, ethnologist, Yosemite National Park.

7. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "Preliminary Report on the Study of the Meadows of Yosemite Valley," by Emil F. Ernst (Typescript, File 880-01, Yosemite National Park Research Library, May 15, 1943), pp.9-16; Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, pp.11-13.

8. Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, pp.3-4; Greene, Yosemite, 1:7,1 5-17.

9. Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, pp.5-7; Greene, Yosemite, I:17-23. These and many other accounts are taken from Lafayette Houghton Bunnell, Discovery of the Yosemite, and the Indian War of 1851, Which Led to That Event (1880; reprint, Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1971). It should be supplemented with C. Gregory Crampton, ed., The Mariposa Indian War, 1850-1851, Diaries of Robert Eccleston: The California Gold Rush, Yosemite, and the High Sierra (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1957).

10. Zenas Leonard, Narrative of the Adventures of Zenas Leonard, ed. Milo Milton Quaife (Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1934), p.129.

11. Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, p. 6; Greene, Yosemite, 1:22.

12. As quoted in Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, p.8.

13. Ibid. See also Bunnell, Discovery of the Yosemite, chap. 5.

14. Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, pp.8-9; Bunnell, Discovery of the Yosemite, chap. 11.

15. Godrey, Yosemite Indians, p.10.

16. Greene, Yosemite, I:25-26; Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, p. 10; Margaret Sanborn, Yosemite: Its Discovery, Its Wonders, and Its People (New York: Random House, 1981), pp.57-60; Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite: The Story of a Great Park and Its Friends (Yosemite: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1957), pp.46-48. The differing accounts of Tenaya's death are well treated through a comparison of these sources.

17. Godfrey, Yosemite Indians, pp.3-4, 35.

18. Bunnell, Discovery of the Yosemite, p.54.

1. Roger R. Olmsted, ed., Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity from Hutchings' California Magazine, 1856-1861 (Berkeley, Calif.: Howell-North Books, 1962), pp.v-vii; Francis P. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), pp.117-18. Similar brief descriptions of Hutchings and his significance abound. An especially revealing portrait of the man and his early life is Shirley Sargent, ed., Seeking the Elephant, 1849: James Mason Hutchings' Journal of his Overland Trek to California ... and Letters from the Mother Lode (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1980).

2. Farquhar, Sierra Nevada, p.118.

3. As quoted from Olmsted, Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity, p.xi.

4. See, for example, ibid., pp.271-88.

5. Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859 (New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker and Co., 1860), pp.306-9; Thomas Starr King, "A Vacation Among the Sierras," Boston Evening Transcript, January 26, 1861, p.1.

6. Alfred Runte, "Beyond the Spectacular: The Niagara Falls Preservation Campaign," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 57 (January 1973): 30-50.

7. Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867), p.426; Samuel Bowles, Across the Continent: A Summer's Journey to the Rocky Mountains, the Mormons and the Pacific States, with Speaker Colfax (Springfield, Mass.: Samuel Bowles and Co., 1865), pp.226-27.

8. Greeley, An Overland Journey, pp.311-12; Clarence King, Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada (Boston: J. R. Osgood and Co., 1872), pp.43-44.

9. Farquhar, Sierra Nevada, p.122; Olmsted, Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity, pp.271-87.

10. H. T. Tuckerman, "Albert Bierstadt," Galaxy 1 (August 15, 1866): 679. See also Fitz-Hugh Ludlow, "Seven Weeks in the Great Yo-Semite," Atlantic Monthly 13 (June 1864): 739-54; and Gordon Hendricks, Albert Bierstadt: Painter of the American West (New York: Henry N. Abrams, 1974).

11. Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite: The Story of a Great Park and Its Friends (Yosemite: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1957), p.93. There are many other accounts of early development history. See, for example, Linda Wedel Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987), 1:44-45; and Shirley Sargent, Yosemite and Its Innkeepers (Yosemite: Flying Spur Press, 1975).

12. Greene, Yosemite, 1:69-71; Margaret Sanborn, Yosemite: Its Discovery, Its Wonders, and Its People (New York: Random House, 1981), pp.93-94.

13. The complexities and inconsistencies of frontier land law in the United States may be followed in Roy M. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage: The Public Domain, 1776-1936 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962). For the Yosemite case in particular I have relied extensively on government documents, cited below.

14. Raymond to Conness, February 20, 1864, Yosemite-Legislation, File 979.447, Y-7, Yosemite National Park Research Library. This is a copy of the original in the National Archives, Records of the General Land Office, Miscellaneous Letters Received, G3 3572.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid. Olmsted's probable role in the protection of Yosemite is best summarized in Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p.268.

17. Other accounts of the events and deliberations leading up to the preservation of Yosemite Valley are Hans Huth, "Yosemite: The Story of an Idea," Sierra Club Bulletin 33 (March 1948): 63-76; and Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp.28-29.

18. Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st sess., May 17, 1864, pp.2300-2301. An important summary of the events behind Conness's reference to the giant sequoias is Joseph H. Engbeck, Jr., The Enduring Giants (Berkeley: University Extension, University of California, in cooperation with the California Department of Parks and Recreation, Save-the-Redwoods League, and the Calaveras Grove Association, 1973). Also relevant is Farquhar, Sierra Nevada, pp.83-87.

19. Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st sess., May 17, 1864, pp.2300-2301.

20. U.S., Statutes at Large, 13(1864): 325.

21. Ibid.; State of California, Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove, by J. D. Whitney (Sacramento: D. W. Gelwicks, State Printer, 1867), p.3.

22. Report of the Commissioners (1867), pp.3-4. The act of April 2, 1866, is reprinted in its entirety in State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1874 and 1875 (Sacramento: G. H. Springer, State Printer, 1875), pp.7-8.

23. Report of the Commissioners (1867), p.4. Galen Clark's colorful life and career may be followed in Shirley Sargent, Galen Clark: Yosemite Guardian (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1964).

24. Report of the Commissioners (1867), pp.6-8.

25. Ibid., p.7.

26. Ibid., p.8.

27. Ibid.

28. State of California, Message of Gov. H. H. Haight, Transmitting the Report of the Yosemite Commissioners [1868/69] and Memorial of J. C. Lamon (Sacramento: D. W. Gelwicks, State Printer, 1870), p.3.

29. Congressional Globe, 40th Cong., 2d sess., June 3, 1868, p.2816.

30. Ibid., p.2817.

31. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Private Land Claims, S. Rept. 185 to accompany H.R. 1118, 40th Cong., 2d sess., July 23, 1868, pp.1-2.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.

35. I have further discussed this distinction in National Parks: The American Experience, 2d ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), p.47.

36. Predictably, those complaining the loudest were Hutchings and Lamon.

1. Frederick Law Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees: A Preliminary Report," ed. Laura Wood Roper, Landscape Architecture 43 (October 1952): 17, 22-23.

2. Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p.287.

3. Olmsted was indeed very familiar with Niagara Falls, having visited the cataract as early as 1828 and 1834. See ibid., pp.6, 14, 378.

4. Olmsted, "Report," pp.16-17, 22.

5. Ibid., pp. 16, 22.

6. Roper, FLO, pp.288, 301. Olmsted returned, in 1886, to visit the Mariposa Big Tree Grove but did not, for reasons impossible to explain, go into Yosemite Valley. Ibid., pp.407-8. A further analysis of Olmsted's commitment to the protection of natural vegetation is Alfred Runte, "Beyond the Spectacular: The Niagara Falls Preservation Campaign," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 57 (January 1973): 30-50.

7. Olmsted, "Report," p.24.

8. Roper, FLO, p.301, 302.

9. State of California, Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove, by J. D. Whitney (Sacramento: D. W. Gelwicks, State Printer, 1867), p.5.

10. Olmsted, "Report," pp.17, 20-21.

11. Ibid., p.22; Report of the Commissioners (1867), p.5.

12. State of California, Geological Survey, J. D. Whitney, State Geologist, The Yosemite Book: A Description of the Yosemite Valley and the Adjacent Region of the Sierra Nevada, and of the Big Trees of California (New York: Julius Bien, 1868), p.9.

13. Ibid., pp.11,20-22.

14. State of California, Message of Gov. H. H. Haight, Transmitting the Report of the Yosemite Commissioners [1868/69] and Memorial of J. C. Lamon (Sacramento: D. W. Gelwicks, State Printer, 1870), pp.3-4.

15. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Public Lands, Memorial of J. M. Hutchings Praying A grant of lands in the Yosemite Valley, California, 41st Cong., 3d sess., February 21, 1871, S. Mis. Doc. 72, p.1. See also U.S. Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, J. M. Hutchings, J. C. Lamon, 41st Cong., 2d sess., January 18, 1870, H. Rept. 2 to accompany H.R. 184, pp.1-10.

16. Hutchings v. Low, 82 U.S. (1872), pp.78, 94.

17. State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1874 and 1875 (Sacramento: G. H. Springer, State Printer, 1875), pp. 10, 17. This report is also an excellent summary of the Hutchings-Lamon case.

18. Olmsted, "Report," p.22.

19. See, for example, Raymond F. Dasmann, The Destruction of California (New York: Macmillan, 1965).

20. A superb overview of these changes is Robert P. Gibbens and Harold F. Heady, The Influence of Modern Man on the Vegetation of Yosemite Valley (Berkeley: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, 1964). The standard primary source is U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "Preliminary Report on the Study of the Meadows of Yosemite Valley," by Emil F. Ernst (Typescript File 880-01, Yosemite National Park Research Library, May 15, 1943). Ernst provides an excellent introduction to Yosemite's early aboriginal and settlement history.

21. L. H. Bunnell to John P. Irish, September 9, 1890, as quoted in State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1889-90 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1890), pp. 10, 12; Galen Clark to Board of Commissioners, August 30, 1894, File 880-01, Yosemite National Park Research Library. Portions of these quotations are also contained in Ernst, "Preliminary Report," pp.5, 11-12.

22. This point is exhaustively documented in Ernst, "Preliminary Report," pp.9-16.

23. Gibbens and Heady, Vegetation of Yosemite Valley, pp.10-20, passim.

24. Olmsted, "Report," pp.22, 24.

25. Ernst, "Preliminary Report," pp.18-19.

26. State of California, Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove, 1883-84 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1884), p.22.

27. Olmsted, "Report," p.24.

28. Many of these photographs are included with Ernst, "Preliminary Report." See also Gibbens and Heady, Vegetation of Yosemite Valley, pp.2-17.

29. Gibbens and Heady, Vegetation of Yosemite Valley, pp.21-24; Ernst, "Preliminary Report," pp.20-60, passim.

30. Report of the Commissioners (1867), p.10.

31. State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove of Big Trees, by William Ashburner (Sacramento: T. A. Springer, State Printer, 1871), pp.3-5.

32. Report of the Commissioners (1883-84), p.22.

33. Ernst, "Preliminary Report," pp.38-39.

34. See again Olmsted, "Report," p.24.

35. William Hammond Hall, To Preserve from Defacement and Promote the Use of the Yosemite Valley (Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1882), p.5.

36. Ibid., pp.21-22.

37. Ibid., pp. 8-9.

38. Gibbens and Heady, Vegetation of Yosemite Valley, pp.21-25.

39. Hall, Yosemite Valley, pp.24-25.

1. United States Statutes at Large, 26 (1890): 651. The latest scholarship on the origins of Yosemite National Park is Richard J. Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron': The Anomalous Partnership of John Muir and the Southern Pacific Company for Preservation of Yosemite National Park," Pacific Historian 29 (Summer/Fall 1985): 136-56. Orsi masterfully proves assumptions about the Southern Pacific's role in the establishment of the park, as previously discussed in Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp.46-47; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 2d ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), p.61; and idem, Trains of Discovery: Western Railroads and the National Parks (Flagstaff, Ariz.: Northland Press, 1984), pp.39-40.

2. State of California, Report of the Commissioners to Manage the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove, 1883-84 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1884), p. 8.

3. William Hammond Hall, To Preserve from Defacement and Promote the Use of the Yosemite Valley (Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1882), pp.5-6.

4. Ibid., pp.6-8.

5. Jones discusses these early legislative failures in John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp.41-42.

6. Accounts of Muir abound. Recent scholarship includes Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown and Co., 1981); Michael P. Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984); and Lisa Mighetto, ed., Muir Among the Animals: The Wildlife Writings of John Muir (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1986). The long-accepted biography is Linnie Marsh Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness: The Life of John Muir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945).

7. This most popular insight into Muir's genius is best told in Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, pp.20-22.

8. Ibid., p.22.

9. John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierra (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916), p.116.

10. A creative addition to analyses of the significance of his term is Lisa Mighetto, "John Muir and the Rights of Animals," in Mighetto, Muir Among the Animals, pp.xi-xxviii. See especially p.xvii.

11. A complete inventory of these claims, including location, size, price per acre, ownership, and original date of sale, may be found in U.S. Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yosemite National Park for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1903 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1903).

12. See, for example, Robert Underwood Johnson, "The Case for Yosemite Valley," Century Magazine 39 (January 1890): 478.

13. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, p.33.

14. Ashburner v. California, 103 U.S. (1880), pp.575-79. The decision is also reprinted in Report of the Commissioners (1883-84), pp.31-32.

15. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp.37-38. The charges are fully listed in State of California, Legislature, Assembly Committee on Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Trees, In the Matter of the Investigation of the Yosemite Valley Commissioners, 28th sess., February 1889 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1889), p.3. Brief Senate hearings were also conducted.

16. California, Legislature, Assembly, Investigation of the Yosemite Valley Commissioners, pp.345-79.

17. Ibid., pp.208-15.

18. Ibid., pp.41-42, 45.

19. Ibid., pp.41,44.

20. Many of these structures are discussed in ibid. For a complete inventory, see Linda Wedel Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987), especially vol. 1.

21. State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1889-90 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1890), p.15. The entire report was a defense of the commission and its management practices.

22. See Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, p.10.

23. Robert Underwood Johnson, Remembered Yesterdays (Boston: Little, Brown, 1923), pp.279-80; Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, p.43.

24. Biennial Report of the Commissioners (1889-90), pp.15-27.

25. John Muir, "The Treasures of the Yosemite," Century Magazine 40 (August 1890): 487-88; idem, "Features of the Proposed Yosemite National Park," ibid. (September 1890): 666-67; Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron,'" p.147.

26. Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron,"' p.147.

27. Ibid.; Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, p.43.

28. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp.44-45; Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron,"' pp.147-48.

29. Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron,'" p.148; "Proceedings of the Sierra Club," Sierra Club Bulletin 1 (January 1896): 275; United States Statutes at Large, 26 (1890): 650-52.

1. U.S. Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yosemite National Park (August 31, 1891), 52d Cong., 1st sess., 1892, H. Ex. Doc. 1, vol.3. Hereafter cited as Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (date). The standard history of the cavalry's role in national parks is H. Duane Hampton, How the United States Cavalry Saved the National Parks (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1971).

2. State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1889-90 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1890), pp.8, 14.

3. State of California, Legislature, Assembly Committee on Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Trees, In the Matter of the Investigation of the Yosemite Valley Commissioners, 28th sess., February 1889 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1889), p.42.

4. Ibid., pp.42-43.

5. Ibid., p.43.

6. Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (1891), p. 664.

7. Ibid. (June 30, 1893), 53d Cong., 2d sess., 1893, H. Ex. Doc 1, pt.5, vol.3, pp.647-48.

8. State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1891-92 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1892), pp.6-7.

9. John Muir, et al., "A Plan to Save the Forests: Forest Preservation by Military Control," Century Magazine 49 (February 1895): 630-31.

10. Wood in Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (1891), p.666; ibid. (September 1, 1892), 52d Cong., 2d sess., 1892, H. Ex. Doc.1, vol.3, p.666; and ibid (1893), p.651. Gale in ibid. (June 30, 1894), 53d Cong., 3d sess., 1894, H. Ex. Doc.1, pt.5, vol.3, p. 676.

11. Wood in ibid. (1893), p.649; Gale in ibid. (1894), p.675.

12. Ibid., pp.675-76.

13. Rodgers in ibid. (August 22, 1895), 54th Cong., 1st sess., 1895, H. Ex. Doc.5, vol.3, pp.843-46. Young in ibid. (August 15, 1896), 54th Cong., 2d sess., 1896, H. Ex. Doc.5, vol.3, pp.736-37.

14. Ibid. (August 26, 1897), 55th Cong., 2d sess., 1897, H. Ex. Doc.5, p.808.

15. Ibid. (June 30, 1898), 55th Cong., 3d sess., 1898, H. Doc.5, pp.1056-57.

16. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "History of Fish Management in Yosemite," uncatalogued and undated separate, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

17. Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (1893), p. 652.

18. For the popularity of fishing, see, for example, Leo K. Wilson, "Yosemite Fishing," Yosemite Nature Notes 5 (July 31, 1926): 52-53.

19. Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (1893), p.652.

20. Ibid. (1896), pp.737-39.

21. Ibid. (October 10, 1905), 59th Cong., 1st sess., 1905, H. Doc.5, p.698.

1. Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp.48-49.

2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yosemite National Park (August 31, 1891), 52d Cong., 1st sess., 1892, H. Ex. Doc.1, vol.3, pp.664-65. Hereafter cited as Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (date). U.S. Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, Yosemite National Park, H. Rept. 1485 to accompany H.R. 7872, 53d Cong., 3d sess., December 10, 1894, p.1.

3. Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (1891), p.666.

4. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1890 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1890), pp.123-26.

5. As quoted in Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, p.44.

6. Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (September 1, 1892), 52d Cong., 2d sess., 1892, H. Ex. Doc.1, vol.3, p.666; ibid. (June 30, 1893), 53d Cong., 2d sess., 1893, H. Ex. Doc.1, pt.5, vol.3, p.651.

7. Ibid. (June 30, 1894), 53d Congress, 3d sess., 1894, H. Ex. Doc.1, pt.5, vol.3, p. 675.

8. Ibid. (August 15, 1896), 54th Cong., 2d sess., 1896, H. Ex. Doc.5, vol.3, p.736.

9. Ibid., pp.742-43.

10. Ibid. (October 28, 1899), 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1899, H. Ex. Doc.5, pt.1, pp. 502-3.

11. Ibid. (October 8, 1903), 58th Cong., 2d sess., 1903, H. Ex. Doc.5, pt.1, pp.520-21.

12. Ibid. (June 30, 1904), 58th Cong., 3d sess., 1904, H. Doc.5, pt.1, p.390.

13. U.S. Congress, Senate, Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, 58th Cong., 3d sess., December 13, 1904, S. Doc.34, pp.1-2.

14. Ibid., pp.3-4.

15. Hiram Martin Chittenden, The Yellowstone National Park (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke Company, 1895); Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, pp.4-5.

16. Yosemite Park Commission, Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, pp. 5-6.

17. Ibid., p.1.

18. Ibid., pp.6, 9.

19. Ibid., pp.8-9.

20. Ibid., p.7.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid., p.8.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid., p.1; United States Statutes at Large, 33 (1905): 702-3. Discussion of the legislation in Congress was brief and uneventful. See Congressional Record, 58th Cong., 3d sess. (December 19, 1904), pp.406-7; ibid. (January 14, 1905), p.889; and ibid. (January 26, 1905), p.1384.

25. United States Statutes at Large, 31 (1901): 790-91.

26. Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, p.51.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid., p.5.

30. Chittenden to Johnson, November 16, 1908, Box 1, Robert Underwood Johnson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Significant correspondence between members of the Yosemite Park Commission, as well as letters written to the commissioners, may also be found in the Robert Bradford Marshall Papers, also in the Bancroft Library. See especially the Hiram Martin Chittenden and William E. Colby files, both in Box 3.

31. Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (September 30, 1906), 59th Cong., 2d sess., 1906, H. Doc.5, p. 653.

32. Congressional Record, 59th Cong., 1st sess. (June 9, 1906), p. 8146; ibid. (June 19, 1906), p.8740; Acting Superintendent, Yosemite Annual Report (September 30, 1908), in U.S. Department of the Interior, Reports . . . for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1908, vol.1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), pp.423-24.

33. The standard account of Forest Service policies in relation to preservation is Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959). On establishment of the Forest Service, see pp.39-44.

34. U.S. Department of the Interior, Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1903 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903), p.156. Historical literature on the Hetch Hetchy debate is both detailed and voluminous. Two important summaries are Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3d ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), chap. 10; and Elmo R. Richardson, "The Struggle for the Valley: California's Hetch Hetchy Controversy, 1905-1913," California Historical Society Quarterly 38 (September 1959): 249-58. See also Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp. 82-169.

35. Congressional Record, 63d Cong., 1st sess. (September 3, 1913), p.4151; ibid., 2d sess. (December 6, 1913), pp.385-86; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp.179-80.

36. Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, p.9. On the scheme to maintain Yosemite's waterfalls by placing dams above the valley rim, see also Allen Kelley, "Restoration of Yosemite Waterfalls," Harper's Weekly 36 (July 16, 1892):678.

1. The standard account of the recession campaign is Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp.54-81. Richard J. Orsi adds significantly to Jones's interpretation in "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron': The Anomalous Partnership of John Muir and the Southern Pacific Company for Preservation of Yosemite National Park," Pacific Historian 29 (Summer/Fall 1985): 148-52.

2. "Sierra Club Statement Concerning the Proposed Recession of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove . . . to the United States," by John Muir, et al., in Congressional Record, 59th Cong., 1st sews. (June 9, 1906), pp.8146-47.

3. Ibid., p.8147.

4. Appendix B, in Congressional Record, 59th Cong., 1st sess. (June 9, 1906), pp. 8147-48. Perhaps the strongest opponent was John Curtin, the California state senator who had long disputed the right of federal authorities to deny him grazing privileges inside Yosemite National Park. Curtin was also retained as an attorney by the valley concessionaires. See Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron,'" p.149; and Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp.48- 49, 54-81, passim.

5. Orsi, "'Wilderness Saint' and 'Robber Baron,'" p.151.

6. Ibid., pp.151-52; Congressional Record, 59th Cong., 1st sess. (June 19, 1906), p.8740.

7. "Sierra Club Statement," Congressional Record (June 9, 1906), p.8147.

8. U.S. Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of Yosemite National Park (September 30, 1906), 59th Cong., 2d sess., H. Doc.5, pp.653-54.

9. Ibid.

10. See Paul Schullery, The Bears of Yellowstone (Yellowstone National Park: Yellowstone Library and Museum Association, 1980).

11. Sovulewski to William Colby, January 28, 1936, File 921.2 S, Biography—Gabriel Sovulewski, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

12. Sovulewski to Forsyth, November 11, 1910, File 12-13-27, Superintendent's Monthly Reports, Central Files, 1907-39, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as R.G. 79).

13. Erwin to Forsyth, September 10, 1910, same File 12-13-27, R.G. 79.

14. Ibid.

15. Forsyth to Secretary of the Interior, November 4, 1910, File 12-13-27, R.G. 79.

16. Forsyth to Secretary of the Interior, November 11, 1912, File 12-13-38, pt.1, Wild Animals, Central Files, R.G. 79.

17. Robinson to Noble, February 4, 1891, Letters Received, 1872-1907, Yosemite Park, R.G. 79.

18. Ibid.

19. State of California, Biennial Report of the Commissioners to Manage Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove for the Years 1891-92 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1892), p.10. The commission, of course, did not mean controlled fires. The standard history of efforts to confine the Merced River to a permanent channel is James F. Milestone, "The Influence of Modern Man on the Stream System of Yosemite Valley" (master's thesis, San Francisco State University, 1978).

20. Linda Wedel Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987), 1:351; Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite: The Story of a Great Park and Its Friends (Yosemite: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1957), pp.111-12.

21. Laurence V. Degnan to Douglas H. Hubbard, January 24, 1959, File Y-22, Firefall Collection, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

22. E. P. Leavitt to Agnes L. Scott, September 20, 1928, File Y-22, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

23. Benson to Secretary of the Interior, July 11, 1907, File 12-13-6, pt.1, Yosemite National Park, Privileges, David A. Curry, Central Files, R.G. 79.

24. Leighton to Director, U.S. Geological Survey, August 22, 1907, File 12-13- 6, pt.1, R.G. 79.

25. An original study of contamination was Donald B. Tresidder, "The National Parks: A Public Health Problem: (thesis, School of Medicine, Stanford University, 1927).

26. Curry to James R. Garfield, August 24, 1907, File 12-1 3-6, pt.1, R.G. 79.

27. As quoted in William W. Forsyth to J. C. Needham, April 23, 1910, File 12-13-6, pt.3, R.G. 79.

28. Regarding Curry's political astuteness, see File 12-13-6, R.G. 79, inclusive. Many of these same letters and documents may also be found in the Yosemite National Park Research Library under Concessions (Accommodations and Transportation), 1896-1910, File Drawer 8.

29. Curry to W. W. Forsyth, September 21, 1911, File 12-13-6, pt.3, R.G.79.

30. Ibid.

31. Curry to Raker, February 4, 1913, File 12-13-6, pt.3, R.G. 79; printed circular, David A. Curry to Dear Sir:, April 10, 1914, File 12-13-6, pt.5, R.G. 79.

32. Circular, Curry, April 10, 1914, R.G. 79. See also "Memorandum Upon the Points Touched On in Circular of David A. Curry" (undated), File 12-13-6, pt.5, R.G. 79. The memorandum appears to have been written by Adolph C. Miller, assistant secretary of the interior.

33. See Horace M Albright as told to Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years, 1913-1933 (Salt Lake City and Chicago: Howe Brothers, 1985), pp.8-9.

34. Circular, Curry, April 10, 1914, R.G. 79.

35. Robert Bradford Marshall, a member of the 1904 Yosemite Park Commission, was a most outspoken advocate for a civilian ranger force. "The soldier . . . has no interest whatever in the park. He simply takes it as a sort of outing and while I hate to say it, I am firmly of the belief that a bottle of whiskey can buy the privilege of killing a buck or carrying a gun anywhere within the park. This does not mean the officer—but the troopers." Marshall to Frank Bond, October 25, 1905, pt.1, File 1905, Box 1, Robert Bradford Marshall Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

1. A detailed overview of the concept is U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Research and Education in the National Parks, by Harold C. Bryant and Wallace W. Atwood, Jr. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932).

2. The pros and cons of admitting automobiles into Yosemite Valley are forcefully discussed in U.S. Department of the Interior, Proceedings of the National Park Conference held at the Yosemite National Park, October 14-16, 1912 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), pp.58-92, 109-44. A recent interpretation is Richard Lillard, "The Siege and Conquest of a National Park," American West 5 (January 1968): 28-3 I, 67-71.

3. See again, for example, Proceedings of the National Park Conference (1912), pp.46-47, 57-58.

4. Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 2d ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), chap. 5.

5. Curry to Lane, February 6, 1915, File 12-13-6, pt.6, Yosemite National Park, Privileges, David A. Curry, Central Files, 1907-39, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as R.G. 79).

6. Stephen T. Mather to Franklin K. Lane, November 20, 1915, File 12-13, pt.8, R.G. 79.

7. Curry to Lane, September 29, 1916, File 12-13, pt.8, R.G. 79.

8. Ibid.

9. Curry to Lane, September 29, 1916 (2d letter this date), and October 2, 1916, File 12-13, pt.8, R.G. 79.

10. U.S. Department of the Interior, Proceedings of the National Parks Conference Held . . . in Washington, D.C., January 2-6, 1917 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1917), p.251.

11. E. Raymond Hall, "Joseph Grinnell (1877 to 1939)," Journal of Mammalogy 20 (November 14, 1939): 409; William E. Bitter, "Joseph Grinnell," Science 90 (July 28, 1939): 75-76.

12. William T. Hornaday to Grinnell, August 15, 1912, Hornaday File, Records of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as MVZ). Grinell replied, "The mountainous areas where the condor is making its last stand seem to me likely to remain adapted to the bird's existence for many years, fifty years if not longer." Grinnell to Hornaday, August 24, 1912, Hornaday file, MVZ.

13. Grinnell to Lane, October 7, 1914, and attached Prospectus, "Natural History Survey of Yosemite National Park," File 12-13, pt.1, Yosemite National Park, Privileges, Joseph Grinnell, R.G. 79.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Grinell to Lane, November 14, 1914, Lane File, MVZ.

17. Grinnell to Sovulewski, November 11, 1914, Sovulewski File, MVZ; Lane to Grinnell, November 25, 1914, and Grinnell to Lane, December 14, 1914, Lane File, MVZ.

18. Grinnell to Mather, May 17, 1915, and Mather to Grinnell, May 31, 1915, Mather File, MVZ. Grinnell thanked Mather for his "unsought contribution" and promised to apply the money "economically and explicitly toward the purpose for which you intended it." Grinnell to Mather, May 10, 1915, Mather File, MVZ.

19. Grinnell to Mather, January 13, 1916, Mather File, MVZ.

20. Ibid.

21. Joseph Grinnell and Tracy Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," Science 44 (September 15, 1916): 375, 377.

22. Ibid., p.377.

23. Ibid., pp.378-79.

24. Ibid., p.378.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid., p.379.

27. Ibid.

28. See, for example, Horace M. Albright as told to Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years, 1913-1933 (Salt Lake City and Chicago: Howe Brothers, 1985), pp.121-22. Joseph Grinnell is not even mentioned. A similar oversight is made in Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), pp.258-59. Mather again gets the credit. According to E. Raymond Hall, Grinnell's innate modesty precluded him from seeking such recognition. "He liked to inspire the beginning of a movement, then sit back and watch it grow, fully content with, and even desirous of, anonymity for himself." Hall, "Joseph Grinnell," p.413.

29. A brief history of university field courses is given in Bryant and Atwood, Jr., Research and Education in the National Parks, p.45. See also Proceedings of the National Parks Conference (1917), pp.93-96.

30. Mather to Grinnell, October 3, 1916, Mather File, MvZ; Goethe to Grinnell, January 27, 1909, and Goethe to Grinnell, October 12, 1916, Goethe File, MVZ.

31. Goethe to Grinnell, October 12, 1916, Goethe File, MVZ.

32. Bryant to Grinnell, June 18, 1917, and Grinnell to Bryant, June 19, 1917, Bryant File, MVZ.

33. Grinnell to Mather, September 1, 1917, Mather File, MVZ.

34. Grinnell to Albright, September 6, 1918, Albright File, MVZ.

35. Grinnell to Mills, March 27, 1919, Mills File, MVZ.

36. Grinnell to Mather, June 6, 1919, Mather File, MVZ.

37. Ibid.

38. Mather to Grinnell, June 14, 1919, Mather File, MVZ.

39. Bryant to Grinnell, July 19, 1919, and Grinnell to Bryant, July 29, 1919, Bryant File, MVZ.

40. Bryant to Grinnell, June 9, 1920, Bryant File, MVZ.

41. Actually, the suggestion that the Yosemite natural history be published by the Park Service originally came from Mather. "I wish a publication of this kind," he wrote Grinell, "or at least one edition of it could be published through the National Park Service." Mather to Grinnell, February 24, 1919, Mather File, MVZ. But Mather soon changed his mind, pleading insufficient funds for printing. Mather to Grinnell, February 10, 1921, Mather File, MVZ. The University of California Press's offer is revealed in Grinnell to Storer, February 21, 1924, Storer File, MVZ.

42. Grinnell to Mather, April 26, 1924, Mather File, MVZ .

43. See again Hall, "Joseph Grinnell," pp.413, 417.

1. Grinnell to W. B. Lewis, July 8, 1920, Lewis File, Records of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as MVZ).

2. See U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "Superintendent's Monthly Report(s)" (hereafter cited as Monthly Report).

3. Contemporary observations include "The Only Way to Yosemite Valley—Nature's Wonderland," Merced Evening Sun, June 1, 1907; "The Travel is Increasing," ibid., June 10, 1907. The completion of the Yosemite Valley Railroad led to a deluge of similar articles throughout California. See also, for example, "To Yosemite By Railroad," Pasadena News, June 6, 1907; and "New Scenic Railroad Into Yosemite Carries Thousands to Wonderland," Oakland Tribune, July 21, 1907. Magazine articles included Edward H. Hamilton, "The New Yosemite Railroad," Cosmopolitan 43 (September 1907): 569-75; and Laihier Bartlett, "By Rail to the Yosemite," Pacific Monthly 17 (June 1907): 730-38.

4. "Yosemite Visitors, October 1, 1916 to September 30, 1917," Yosemite National Park, Travel, pt.1, Box 727, Central Files, 1907-39, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as R.G. 79).

5. Monthly Report, September 1926 through September 1927. Rail travel over the period declined on an annual average of 29 percent.

6. Monthly Report, September 1927.

7. Grinnell to Stephen T. Mather, October 26, 1915, and Mather to Grinnell, October 26, 1915, Mather File, MVZ. The incident may also be followed in the Gabriel Sovulewski, Enos Mills, and George V. Bell fifes.

8. Yard to Grinnell, May 18, 1915, Yard File, MVZ.

9. Ibid.; Grinnell to Yard, July 17, 1915, Yard File, MVZ.

10. Yard to Grinnell, July 21, 1915, Yard File MVZ

11. Joseph Grinnell and Tracy Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," Science 44 (September 15, 1916): 379.

12. Grinnell to Townsley, January 4, 1915, Townsley File, MVZ.

13. Townsley to Grinnell, January 28, 1915, and Grinnell to Townsley, February 3, 1915, Townsley File, MVZ.

14. Townsley to Grinnell, February 19, 1915; Townsley to Grinnell, March 3, 1915; Grinnell to Townsley, March 4, 1915; all Townsley File, MVZ.

15. Townsley to Grinnell, October 22, 1916, Townsley File, MVZ.

16. Grinnell to Lewis, July 8, 1920; Lewis to Grinnell, July 21, 1920; Grinnell to Lewis, July 28, 1920; all Lewis File, MVZ.

17. Grinnell to Lewis, July 28, 1920, Lewis File, MVZ.

18. Grinnell to Lewis, August 12, 1920, Lewis File, MVZ.

19. Lewis to Grinnell, September 11, 1920, Lewis File, MVZ.

20. Grinnell to Lewis, September 14, 1920, Lewis File, MVZ.

21. Ibid.

22. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, October 14, 1920 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1920), p. 66.

23. Grinnell to Robert Sterling Yard, May 2, 1919, Yard File, MVZ.

24. "Open Letter," Grinnell to E. P. Leavitt, Acting Superintendent, Yosemite National Park, October 4, 1927, File 710, pt.1, Yosemite Fauna, General, Central Classified Files, 1907-49, R.G. 79. Grinnell published his letter as "Recommendations Concerning the Treatment of Large Mammals in Yosemite National Park," Journal of Mammalogy 9 (February 1928): 76. On Grinnell's preference for California subjects, see E. Raymond Hall, "Joseph Grinell (1877 to 1939)," Journal of Mammalogy 20 (November 14, 1939): 411-12.

25. Grinnell to Charles W. Michael, December 4, 1922, and Grinnell to Michael, March 10, 1923, Michael File, MVZ. The epidemic is discussed in Ernest A. Payne, "The Return of the California Gray Squirrel," Yosemite Nature Notes 19 (January 1940): 1-3.

26. Grinnell to Lewis, May 12, 1925, Lewis File, MVZ.

27. Grinnell to Lewis, November 25, 1925, Lewis File, MVZ .

28. Grinnell to Russell, November 25, 1925, Russell File, MVZ, and Grinnell to Mather, November 25, 1925, Mather File, MVZ.

29. Leavitt to The Director, National Park Service, November 14, 1927, File 710, pt.1, R.G. 79.

30. McAllister to Mather, December 30, 1918, File 12-13, pt.2, Yosemite National Park, Wild Animals, General, Central Files 1907-39, R.G. 79.

31. Lewis to Director, April 28, 1919, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

32. Lewis to Director, May 22, 1919, and Palmer to H. M. Albright, June 6, 1919, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

33. Palmer to Albright, June 6, 1919, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

34. Ibid.

35. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "Preliminary Report . . . on the Elk Situation in Yosemite National Park," July 5, 1928, by Ansel F. Hall, copy in Hall File, MVZ.

36. Grinnell to Thomson, November 8, 1933, Thomson File, and Grinnell to Cammerer, November 9, 1933, Cammerer File, MVZ. Twenty-seven animals in all were moved. A contemporary account is A. E. Borell, "Yosemite Elk Herd Moved to Owens Valley," Yosemite Nature Notes 12 (December 1933): 107-9.

37. Grinnell to White, December 12, 1927, White File, MVZ.

38. Copy in File 979-447, Y-34, Wildlife and Research Reserves, Yosemite National Park Research Library, and in Grinnell Files, MVZ.

39. Monthly Report, November 1932.

1. The issue of bears comes up repeatedly in U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "Superintendent's Monthly Report(s)" (hereafter cited as Monthly Report). The annual reports of the superintendents, both military and civilian, are also instructive. This chapter also relics heavily on materials contained in File 12-13, Yosemite National Park, Wild Animals, General, Central Files, 1907-39, and File 715-02, Yosemite National Park, Bears, Central Classified Files, 1907-49, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as R.G. 79).

2. Frank G. Baker to Mather, May 24, 1924, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

3. Mather to Lewis, May 31, 1924, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

4. W. H. Perdriau to Stephen Mather, May 31, 1924, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

5. Lewis to Mather, June 10, 1924, File 12-13, pt.2, R.G. 79.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. Russell to Grinnell, October 7, 1927, Russell File, Records of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as MVZ). Biographical information on Russell may be found in File 921.2, Biography, Yosemite National Park Research Library, and at the Washington State University Library in Pullman, repository of the Russell Papers, 1920-67.

12. Russell to Grinnell, October 7, 1927, Russell File, MVZ.

13. Ibid.

14. Grinnell to Russell, October 11, 1927, Russell File, MVZ. The "Open Letter" referred to is cited in chapter 9, note 24.

15. Russell to Grinnell, October 7, 1927, Russell File, MVZ.

16. Thomson to Grinnell, July 3, 1929, Thomson File, MVZ .

17. Ibid. Additional examples of Thomson's terminology may be found in the Monthly Report.

18. Michael to Grinnell, July 23, 1927, and Michael to Grinnell, August 17, 1928, Michael File, MVZ.

19. Lewis to The Director, National Park Service, December 19, 1923, Yosemite Miscellaneous, Central Files, R.G. 79.

20. Ibid.

21. The bitterness of the rivalry is extensively documented in File 12-13, Yosemite National Park, Privileges, Central Files, R.G. 79. See in particular the David A. Curry and D. J. Desmond Files.

22. Linda Wedel Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service, 1987), 2:658. The events and concerns leading to the merger are exhaustively discussed in U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "Report on Franchise Situation-Yosemite National Park," March 27, 1923, by Horace M. Albright and W. B. Lewis, and "Supplemental Report on Franchise Situation-Yosemite National Park," December 1, 1923, by W. B. Lewis, both in File 979.447, Y-16, Yosemite-Concessions, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

23. Monthly Report, July 1927.

24. Tresidder to E. P. Leavitt, September 30, 1927, File 715-02, pt.1, R.G. 79.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. Russell to Grinnell, October?, 1927, Russell File, MVZ; Leavitt to The Director, National Park Service, October 8, 1927, File 715-02, pt.1, R.G. 79.

28. G. H. Billings to W. B. Lewis, September 17, 1927, File 715-02, pt.1, R.G. 79.

29. Russell to Grinnell, October 7, 1927, Russell File, MVZ.

30. See Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite: The Stony of a Great Park and Its Friends (Yosemite: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1957). The book was first published in 1931 by the University of California Press.

31. A summary of Bryant's career is Ann and Myron Sutton, "The Man from Yosemite," National Parks Magazine 28 (July-September 1954): 102-5, 131-32.

32. Monthly Report, November 1927.

33. Monthly Report, April 1929.

34. Monthly Reports, June and July, 1929.

35. Monthly Report, October 1929.

36. Monthly Reports, August 1932, August 1933, November 1935, June 1936, August 1937. In 1938 the quota was increased to twenty animals; in 1939 twenty-five bears were killed; in 1940 fourteen out of an authorized twenty-five; and in 1941 twenty-four out of another authorization of twenty-five animals. My statistics are compiled from letters contained in File 715-02, pt.1, R.G. 79.

37. Bryant to Grinnell, June 30, 1925; Bryant to Grinnell, July 14, 1925; Bryant to Grinnell, June 30, 1926; all Bryant File, MVZ. Grinnell frequently served as a reference for field-school students. See, for example, C. A. Harwell to Grinnell, March 27, 1933, Harwell File, MVZ.

38. Joseph Grinnell also took an active role in the Yosemite Natural History Association, serving on its original board of trustees. See H. C. Bryant and Carl P. Russell fifes, MVZ.

39. Construction activity is best followed in the Monthly Report. See also Greene, Yosemite, vol.2.

40. Tresidder to Lewis, April 26, 1927; and Tresidder to E. P. Leavitt, November 12, 1927, File 900-01, Drawer 12, Yosemite Park and Curry Company, Buildings, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

41. Monthly Report, January 1930; for efforts to obtain the Olympics, see Monthly Report, February 1929.

42. Monthly Reports, January 1931, December 1935, January 1936.

43. Merriam to Mather, October 25, 1927, File 201-11, Box 10, Yosemite Advisory Board, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

44. Ibid.; also Mather to Horace M. Albright, December 31, 1927, File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

45. I have prepared a brief biographical sketch of Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., in Richard C. Davis, ed., Encyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History, 2 vols. (New York, Macmillan Co., 1983), 2:507-10.

46. Olmsted to Mather, August 16, 1928, File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

47. Yosemite National Park, Committee of Expert Advisors, "Comments on the Camp Curry Entrance and Parking Problems and Related Matters," by Frederick Law Olmsted, November 7, 1928, File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

48. Ibid.

49. "1928 Fall Meeting of Yosemite Advisory Commission in Yosemite Valley" and "Memorandum of Certain Tentative Conclusions in Regard to Yosemite Valley Suggested by Meeting of October 31 to November 4, 1928," drafted by F. L. Olmsted, both in File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

50. Monthly Report, June 1929; "Draft Report: Meeting of the Committee of Expert Advisers . . . April 24 and 25, 1930," File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

51. "Draft Report ... April 24 and 25, 1930," File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

52. As quoted in ibid.; Monthly Report, April 1930.

53. Monthly Report, February 1929. The idea, however, was at least a half century old. See, for example, State of California, Legislature, Assembly Committee on Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Trees, In the Matter of the Investigation of the Yosemite Valley Commissioners, 28th sess., February 1889 (Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1889), p.317, for an early reference to the tramway concept.

54. John P. Buwalda to C. G. Thomson, with enclosure, "Glacier Point Cableway, September 13, 1929, File 201-11," Yosemite National Park Research Library.

55. Ibid.; "Draft Report . . . April 24 and 25, 1930," File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library. Olmsted's authorship of these passages is confirmed by Duncan McDuffie to Col. Thomson, September 7, 1929, File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

56. "Draft Report. . . April 24 and 25, 1930," File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

57. Ibid.

1. Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp.79-80; Horace M. Albright, "The National Park Service's Policy on Predatory Mammals," Journal of Mammalogy 12 (May 1931): 185-86.

2. Joseph Grinnell and Tracy Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," Science 44 (September 15, 1916): 375-79.

3. Ben H. Thompson, "George M. Wright, 1904-1936," George Wright Forum (Summer 1981), pp. 1-4; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," November 1927 (other reports hereafter cited as Monthly Report).

4. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States: A Preliminary Survey, by George M. Wright, Joseph S. Dixon, and Ben H. Thompson (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), p.10.

5. Ibid., p.21.

6. Ibid., p.37.

7. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States: Wildlife Management, by George M. Wright and Ben H. Thompson (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935), pp. 14-15.

8. Forsyth to Esther C. Boardman, August 4, 1911, and David Sherfey to W. W. Forsyth, with enclosure, June 11, 1912, File 701-01.42, Box Y-35, Mariposa Grove of Big Trees, General Correspondence, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

9. Thomson to The Director, November 11, 1930, File 701-01.42, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

10. Ibid. Albright replied: "Your letter of November 11, about your protection of the Grizzly Giant, pleases me immensely. It is achievements like this that are distinguishing the National Park Service." Albright to Thomson, November 18, 1930, File 701-01.42, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

11. F. L. Cook, Memorandum for the Superintendent, Sequoia National Park, October 30, 1933, File 701-01.42, Yosemite National Park Research Library. Cook was actually chief ranger at Sequoia and was reporting with regard to vista clearing in Yosemite.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Wright to The Director, December 11, 1933, File 701-01.42, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

15. Thomson to The Director, February 20, 1934, File 701-01.42, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

16. Ibid.

17. Grinnell and Storer "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," p.377.

18. The Monthly Reports provide graphic descriptions of all deaths and injuries.

19. C. G. Thomson, Memorandum to the Director, July 13, 1931, copy in C. A. Harwell File, Records of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as MVZ).

20. Ibid.

21. Grinnell to Michael, August 4, 1931; Michael to Grinnell, September 3, 1931; Grinnell to Michael, September 7, 1931; all Michael File, MVZ. Grinnell's request for information to C. A. Harwell, park naturalist, was equally emphatic. "Please give me the truth with respect to the enclosed report of someone 'killed' by a rattlesnake in Yosemite." Harwell replied with Thomson's memorandum to the director, further adding, "We shall make every effort to exterminate the rattlesnake in accordance with the policy set down by Superintendent Thomson regarding this venomous snake." Grinnell to Harwell, July 17, 1931, and Harwell to Grinnell, July 24, 1931, Harwell File, MVZ.

22. In Yosemite, however, Superintendent Thomson remained true to his promise to exterminate rattlesnakes wherever found. See, for example, Monthly Report, August 1935. George Wright advocated a more reasonable policy in Fauna of the National Parks (1935), p. 17. "The rattlesnake is, of course, a traditional enemy but, nevertheless, a greatly overestimated one. The proper practice is to destroy rattlesnakes when encountered at human concentration points but to permit them to go unmolested elsewhere."

23. James V. Lloyd, "Albright's Efforts Save Yosemite Timber," Yosemite Nature Notes 9 (July 1930): 65-66. Statistics regarding the involved acreages vary, in large part because early estimates were later revised. I have used the original estimates.

24. Monthly Report, August 1932.

25. Ibid.

26. Wright, Dixon, and Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks, p.24.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid., pp.24-26. Hopes that Yosemite could be restocked with native bighorn sheep were already decades old, and indeed such proposals permeate park files and secondary literature. An especially thoughtful assessment of the situation is George V. Bell to Joseph Grinnell, September 8, 1915, Bell File, MVZ. Bell at the time was the superintendent of Yosemite National Park.

29. Wright and Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks, pp.6, 12. Road kills of wild animals are also frequently listed in the Monthly Reports.

30. Thompson, "George M. Wright," p.4.

31. Joseph S. Dixon, Memorandum for the Regional Director, August 27, 1940, Yosemite Wildlife, 1938-1942, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

32. CCC activities are extensively documented in the Monthly Reports. See also Linda Wedel Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987), 2:732-50.

33. The Meinecke Plan is discussed in A. Robert Thompson, "Preliminary Report to the Chief Forester on Vegetative Studies at Yosemite National Park," May 18-26, 1938, File Yosemite National Park Wildlife, 1938-1942, Yosemite National Park Research Library. References to the plan also appear frequently in File 201-11, Yosemite Advisory Board, Yosemite National Park Research Library. For Curry Company proposals, see this file and 900-01, Yosemite Park and Curry Company, Buildings, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

34. His colleague E. Raymond Hall noted, "Grinnell's effectiveness as a conservationist, though well-known to a few persons, was much greater than was generally supposed." Hall, "Joseph Grinnell (1877 to 1939)," Journal of Mammalogy 20 (November 14, 1939): 413.

35. Lawrence C. Merriam, Memorandum for the Director, November 16, 1940, File 715-02, pt. 1, and O. A. Tomlinson, Memorandum for the Superintendent, Yosemite National Park, November 1, 1943, File 715-02, pt.2, Yosemite National Park, Bears, Central Classified Files, 1907-49 Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as R.G. 79).

36. Merriam to The Director, October 8, 1937, File 715-02, R.G. 79.

37. Joseph S. Dixon, "Special Report on Bear Problem, Floor Yosemite Valley, California," October 7, 1937, File 715-02, R.G. 79. Dixon, accordingly, saw no conflict of interest in killing bears that caused injuries or property damage.

38. Wright, Dixon, and Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks, p.10.

39. Monthly Report, September 1941. Estimated visitation for the travel year ending September 30, 1941, was 594,062.

40. Dorr G. Yeager, Memorandum for the Regional Director, Region Four, May 31, 1943, File 718, Yosemite National Park, Ecology, R.G. 79. The Ernst report, previously cited, may be found in File 880-01, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

41. Thomas C. Vint, Memorandum for the Director, September 1, 1943, and G. D. Coffman, Memorandum for the Director, February 5, 1944, File 718, R.G. 79.

42. Frank A. Kittredge, Memorandum for the Regional Director, Region Four, with enclosure, April 28, 1945, File 718, R.G. 79.

43. Monthly Report, September 1944.

44. Monthly Report, July 1935. Mosquito abatement procedures using crude oil are described in Monthly Report, May 1930.

45. Monthly Reports, June 1949, August 1949.

46. See, for example, David R. Brower, "The Case Against the Latest Proposal to Control Needle Miners in Yosemite Lodgepoles," June 22, 1959, Wayburn Files, Records of the Sierra Club, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Monthly Reports, August 1959, July 1961, May 1963, July 1963.

50. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1964).

51. Leopold Files, MVZ.

52. U.S. Department of the Interior, Advisory Board on Wildlife Management, Wildlife Management in the National Parks, by A. S. Leopold, et al., Report to the Secretary, March 4, 1963, p.4.

53. Grinnell and Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," p.377; Wright, Dixon, and Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks, p.1; Leopold, et al., Wildlife Management, p 5

54. Leopold et al., Wildlife Management, pp.12-14.

55. Ibid., pp.14-15.

1. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," in Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1977), pp.16-30.

2. Garrett Hardin, "The Economics of Wilderness," Natural History 78 (June-July 1969): 20-27.

3. An outspoken rebuttal to Hardin is Eric Julber, "Let's Open Up Our Wilderness Areas," Reader's Digest 100 (May 1972): 126.

4. Notes Linda Wedel Greene, for example, "The first permanent hotel structure in the valley, begun in 1856,... functioned more as a saloon until crushed by snow during the winter of 1857-58." Greene, Historic Resource Study: Yosemite. 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987), 1:44.

5. Mark Daniels to The Secretary of the Interior, September 1, 1915, File 12-13, pt. 1, Yosemite National Park, Privileges, D. J. Desmond, Central Files, 1907-39, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington D.C. (hereafter cited as R.G. 79).

6. Don Tresidder, Memorandum, "Sale of Alcoholic Beverages," June 20, 1934, File 979-447, Yosemite-Concessions, Yosemite National Park Research Library. The memorandum also appears in its entirety as an addendum to U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," June 1934 (other reports hereafter cited as Monthly Report).

7. Yosemite National Park Research Library to Author, June 1988.

8. Tresidder, Memorandum, June 20, 1934, File 979-447, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

9. Ibid.

10. C. G. Thomson, Memorandum for the Files, July 13, 1935, File 900-01, Drawer 12, Yosemite Park and Curry Company, Buildings, Yosemite National Park Research Library; Tresidder, June 20, 1934, File 979-447, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

11. Thomson, Memorandum, July 13, 1935, File 900-01, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

12. Monthly Report, December 1954; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, "3 Million People Visited Yosemite National Park Last Year," News Release, January 7, 1988, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

13. Adams to Brower, January 6, 1957, H. C. Bradley Files, Records of the Sierra Club, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as Sierra Club Papers).

14. Adams to Colby, September 15, 1952, Sierra Club Office Files, and Adams to Brower, January 6, 195 7, Bradley Files, Sierra Club Papers.

15. Adams to Brower, January 6, 1957, Bradley Files, Sierra Club Papers.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.; Ansel Adams with Mary Street Alinder, Ansel Adams: An Autobiography (Boston: Little, Brown and Co. and New York Graphic Society Books, 1985), pp.182-83.

18. Adams to Brower, January 6, 1957, Bradley Files, Sierra Club Papers; Adams, Autobiography, pp.184-85.

19. Adams to Brower, January 6, 1957, Bradley Files, Sierra Club Papers.

20. Hardin, Managing the Commons, pp.26-28.

21. Drury to Duncan McDuffie, August 7, 1945, File 201-11, Box 10, Yosemite Advisory Board, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

22. Drury to Duncan McDuffie, June 12, 1946, File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

23. Kittredge, Memorandum re: Development in Yosemite Valley, June 25, 1947, File 600, Box 78-A, Yosemite Development, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. Drury to McDuffie, June 12, 1946, File 201-11, Yosemite National Park Research Library; Oehlmann to Charles G. Woodbury, October 20, 1947, Sierra Club Office Files, Sierra Club Papers.

27. Oehlmann to Charles G. Woodbury, January 19, 1948, Sierra Club Office Files, Sierra Club Papers.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Oehlmann to Preston, September 8, 1955, File N16, Yosemite Wildlife Management, 1954-56, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

31. Oehlmann to Kuchel, January 7, 1957, File 3823, Yosemite Park and Curry Company, General Correspondence, 1957-59, Yosemite National Park Research Library. In keeping with general practice, Oehlmann sent copies of the letter to both Park Service Director Conrad L. Wirth and Yosemite Superintendent John C. Preston.

32. Adams, Notes on Mission 66, March 17, 1956, Sierra Club Office Files, Sierra Club Papers.

33. William E. Colby to Horace M. Albright, July 31, 1933, Sierra Club Office Files, Sierra Club Papers; Editorial, "Yosemite's Tioga Highway," National Parks Magazine 32 (July-September 1958): 123-24; Ansel Adams, "Yosemite-1958: Compromise in Action," National Parks Magazine 32 (October-December 1958): 166-75, 190; Greene, Yosemite, 2:762-63.

34. Gripper to Preston, January 19, 1954, File D30, pt.1, Yosemite, Tioga Road, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

35. The Monthly Reports again provide the most detailed information regarding the superintendent's relationship with out side communities.

36. Gripper to The Honorable Ben Johnson, June 22, 1954, and Gardner to Preston, May 25, 1954, File D30, pt.1, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

37. Leonard to Conrad Wirth, April 5, 1955, and Hildebrand to Thomas J. Allen, June 10, 1955, File D30, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

38. Hildebrand to Allen, June 10, 1955, File D30, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

39. "Parks Director Orders Tioga Work Resumed," Fresno Bee, August 20, 1958; Brower to Alexander Hildebrand, July 23, 1958, and "The Sierra Club's National Park Road Policy—and Tenaya Lake," in Confidential Memorandum, July 25, 1958, both in Wayburn Files, Sierra Club Papers.

40. Statement of Superintendent John C. Preston before the Region Four Conference held in Death Valley National Monument, January 11-16, 1959, File D30, pt.6, Yosemite National Park Research Library. See also Statement of Director Conrad L. Wirth Before Sierra Club Officials, San Francisco, California, November 24, 1958, File D30, pt. 5, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

41. Hardin, Managing the Commons, pp.20-21. See especially Hardin's comparison of national parks to the commons, on page 21.

42. Adams to Richard Leonard, June 19, 1971, Carton 163, Sierra Club Papers.

43. Ibid.

44. Adams, Autobiography, p.106.

45. Adams to William E. Colby, September 19, 1952, Sierra Club Office Files, Sierra Club Papers.

1. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Compilation of the Administrative Policies of the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), p.20; File Y-22, Firefall Collection, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

2. Jack Hope, "Hassles in the Park," Natural History 80 (May 1971): 22-23; Dave Patterson to Author, Oral Interviews, April 21-25, 1988, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Patterson was a ranger in Yosemite Valley during the riots.

3. Yosemite: Better Way to Run a Park?" U.S. News and World Report 72 (January 24, 1972): 56; George B. Hartzog, Jr., "Changing the National Parks to Cope with People-and Cars," ibid., p.52.

4. Yosemite National Park, "History and Summary of Planning Documents," December 13, 1974, File D18, General Management Plan, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

5. Harris to Hartzog, April 13, 1971, Carton 163, Records of the Sierra Club, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as Sierra Club Papers).

6. "Sierra Club Policy for Yosemite Master Plan Statement," September 1971, Carton 163, Sierra Club Papers; Yosemite, "History and Summary of Planning Documents," December 13, 1974, File D18, Yosemite National Park Research Library. Preliminary proposals further included a high bridge that would cross the gorge of the Merced River and link the Wawona and Big Oak Flat roads without requiring north-south traffic to flow through Yosemite Valley proper. The Sierra Club also rejected the bypass as "out of place in the park."

7. Hardy to Arnberger, with attachment, "Yosemite Master Plan-Specific Comments," June 12, 1974, File D18, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

8. Fisher to John Cook, July 11, 1974, File D18, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

9. Stein to Chapman, with enclosure, "Yosemite National Park: Suggested Revisions to the Draft Master Plan," July 29, 1974, File D18, Yosemite National Park Research Library; Jack Anderson, "Yosemite: Another Disneyland?" Washington Post, September 15, 1974, reprint; Philip Fradkin, "Sierra Club Sees Damage in Yosemite Filming," Los Angeles Times, August 28, 1974, pt.1, pp.22; "Yosemite National Convention Center Proposed by New Concessionaire," Sierra Club Bulletin 59 (September 1974): 29. File D18, Yosemite National Park Research Library, also contains revealing letters of complaint to Park Service officials.

10. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite Master Plan Workbook (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1975); U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite Master Plan: Update (June 1976); U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite: Summary of the Draft General Management Plan, August 1978 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1978); U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, News Release, "Final Yosemite General Management Plan Released," October 30, 1980, all located in the Yosemite National Park Research Library.

11. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite General Management Plan and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1980).

12. Minutes, Resources Management Meeting, November 5, 1970, File N16, Wildlife Management, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

13. Charles Petit, "Yosemite Bear Killings Protested," San Francisco Chronicle, November 21, 1973; Shenk to L. Thompson, November 23, 1973, File N16, Yosemite National Park Research Library. Other newspaper articles include "Killing of Yosemite Bears is Protested," Fresno Bees, November 21, 1973; "Park Aides Explain 'Bear' Facts," Fresno Bee, November 22, 1973; and "Over 200 Bears Killed in Yosemite in Last 12 Years," Merced Sun-Star, November 21, 1973. These and other press releases may be found in File K34, Box 6, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

14. Lawrence M. Stickney to Chief Ranger, November 21, 1973, and Mark Thomas, Jr., to Ranger Department, November 30, 1973, File N16, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

15. Galen Rowell, "The Yosemite Solution to Ursus Americanus," Sierra Club Bulletin 59 (February 1974): 27.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., p.30.

18. Ibid., p.31.

19. F. R. Peake to National Parks Division, September 14, 1954, and Ronald F. Lee to Peake, October 15, 1954, File N1427, Mammals, 1953-56, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

20. Another controversial discussion of the issue is Alston Chase, "The Last Bears of Yellowstone," Atlantic Monthly 251 (February 1983): 63-73. Also see Chase's Playing God in Yellowstone: The Destruction of America's First National Park (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986).

21. Arnberger to Riegelhuth, May 22, 1975, File N16, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

22. Acton Cochran to John M. Good, November 21, 1973; Jeff Giller to Jack Morehead, n.d.; John M. Morehead to Jeff Giller, January 16, 1974; all File N16, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

23. Riegelhuth to John Bingaman, March 4, 1974, File N16, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

24. Ibid.

25. Statement of Horace Marden Albright, June 13, 1975, "Yosemite Valley Master Planning and the Importance of Its Concessioner," File D18, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. Hardy to Binnewies, June 2, 1982, File C3 823, Concessions, 1979-85, Yosemite National Park, Concessions Management, Yosemite Park Office Records.

29. Binnewies to Hardy, June 18, 1982, and Charles W. Wendt, Memorandum for the Superintendent, June 14, 1982, File C3823, Yosemite Park Office Records.

30. Statement of Edward C. Hardy, December 4, 1978, during Hearing on Yosemite Plan, San Francisco, California, File D18, General Management Plan, Yosemite Park Office Records.

31. Binnewies to Hardy, September 30, 1982, File C3823, Yosemite Park Office Records.

32. Confidential Report to the Superintendent, Division of Resources Management, Yosemite National Park, "Natural Resources Management Issue Statements," March 1, 1986, p.9, Yosemite Park Office Records.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid. See also Edward C. Hardy to Robert O. Binnewies, August 16, 1982, File C3823, Yosemite Park Office Records.

35. "Resources Management Issue Statements," p.18. I have further discussed the evolution of fire ecology in modern park management in National Parks: The American Experience, 2d ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), chap.10.

36. "Resources Management Issue Statements," pp.22-23; Jan W. van Wagtendonk, "Adding to the Bighorn Herd," Yosemite 50 (Spring 1988): 5.

37. Philip Shabecoff, "Historic Battle Over a Yosemite Lake is Back," New York Times, August 6, 1987, p.1; Kevin Starr, "Hodel's Absurd Dam-Razing Idea," Seattle Times, August 12, 1987, p.15; Don Hodel, "Hetch Hetchy Valley: Restoring Part of America's Scenic Beauty," Seattle Times, December 24, 1987, p.7; Henry Berrey, "Draining Hetch Hetchy: A Water and Power Struggle," Yosemite 49 (Fall 1987): 1-4; Stephen J. Botti, "A Place We Never Knew," Yosemite 50 (Winter 1988): 12-15.

38. "Is the Master Plan Feasible?" Yosemite 50 (Spring 1988): 1-4 Gene Rose, "1980 Yosemite General Plan No Longer Viable," Fresno Bee, November 11, 1987.

1. Van Wagtendonk to Chief, Division of Natural Resources and Research, Western Region, National Park Service, March 6, 1986, File N2215, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

2. Statement of Horace Marden Albright, "Yosemite Valley Master Planning and the Importance of Its Concessioner June 13, 1975, File D18, General Management Plan, Yosemite National Park Research Library.

3. Printed key jacket, "Welcome to Yosemite," May 1987, Author's Collection.

4. Table Placard, Mountain Room Bar, Summer 1983, Author's Collection.

5. Edward Hardy, "A Message from the President: Yosemite Park and Curry Company Service Responsibilities," Yosemite Sentinel Book 12, vol.3 (March 1986): 3.

6. The issue of public transportation is creatively, if somewhat improbably, addressed in Christopher Swan and Chet Roaman, YV 88: An Eco-Fiction of Tomorrow (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1977). See also my article "Yosemite Valley Railroad: Highway of History, Pathway of Promise," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (December 1974): 4-9.

7. Greater reliance on foundations was an idea vigorously pursued by Ansel Adams. See Adams with Mary Street Alinder, Ansel Adams: An Autobiography (Boston: Little, Brown and Co. with New York Graphic Society Books, 1985), p.346. See also Adams's correspondence in the H. C. Bradley Files, Records of the Sierra Club, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, especially Adams to David R. Brower, January 6, 1957.

8. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States: A Preliminary Survey, by George M. Wright, Joseph S. Dixon, and Ben H. Thompson (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), pp.69-70. Wright's reference to food safes is in volume two of the report, Wildlife Management (1935), p.23.

9. Telephone reconfirmation by Jeffrey A. Keay, Division of Resources Management, Yosemite National Park, to author, October 18, 1988.

10. Roger R. Olmsted, ed., Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity from Hutchings' California Magazine, 1856-1861 (Berkeley, Calf.: Howell-North Books, 1962), p.vii.

11. Jeffrey A. Keay to author, October 18, 1988.

12. See, for example, Wright, Dixon, and Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks, pp.68-70.

13. Ibid., pp.69-70.

14. Author's personal investigations, March 1987 through October 1988.

15. "Is the Master Plan Feasible?" Yosemite 50 (Spring 1988): 1-4.