Series: Fighting for Freedom: African Americans and the War of 1812

In June 1807, the United States and Great Britain appeared on the verge of conflict: after the frigate Leopard fired on the US warship Chesapeake, British sailors boarded the American vessel, mustered the crew, and impressed four seamen -- Jenkins Ratford, William Ware, Daniel Martin, and John Strachan -- whom they claimed were deserters. The damaged Chesapeake limped back to Norfolk with three dead and 18 wounded. Historian Gene Allen Smith examines the inauspicious beginnings to the war.

• Article 1: Uncertain Americans: The slippery status of African American soldiers and civilians

  

  As during the American Revolution, black sailors and soldiers saw the second war with Britain as a means to advance their own agenda. For free blacks, the War of 1812 provided the chance to broker their participation in ways that enhanced their individual and collective status within society. Yet for free blacks, the war did not advance their march toward equality but rather initiated a new era of prejudice and racial discrimination. Read more

• Article 2: The Underground Railroad of 1812: Paths to freedom along the Canadian border

  

  Canada was seen by many slaves as the promised land: the final terminal on the Underground Railroad, a place to live free from the bonds of servitude. Yet it was not alone as a destination: the Michigan territory also drew runaway slaves to the promise of freedom. Read more

• Article 3: Sanctuary in the Spanish Empire: An African American officer earns freedom in Florida

  

  Though the United States did not officially declare war on Spain, its southern neighbor, during this era of conflict, border problems along the gulf frontier exacerbated tensions and prompted the Patriot War of 1812–13. During this regional conflict, American settlers living in Florida organized an uprising against Spanish rule and coaxed US forces to intervene on their behalf. Read more

• Article 4: American liberty and slavery in the Chesapeake: The paradox of Charles Ball

  

  When the War of 1812 came in full force to the Chesapeake Bay region, it created new opportunities for slaves who wanted to flee with the British to freedom. During April 1814 Admiral Alexander F. I. Cochrane issued a bold proclamation freeing enslaved people who joined the British cause; this was similar to Lord Dunmore’s attempt to mobilize Virginia blacks during the American Revolution. Read more

• Article 5: Accounts of African American service during the War of 1812

  

  Although the documentation is fragmented, men of African descent did serve as soldiers and sailors aboard warships and on privateers during the war in substantial numbers on either side. Read more

• Article 6: Wedged Between Slavery and Freedom: African American Equality Deferred

  

  The documentary record that chronicles black service during the War of 1812 is very fragmentary at best. Peter Denison, Prince Witten, Charles Ball, Ned Simmons, and Jordan Noble all chose sides during the War of 1812, and these choices ultimately defined their individual and collective identities. Read more