Purpose
To present a successful curriculum-based program an
interpreter must understand and meet the needs of the
specific organized group with whom s/he is working.
Human development theory explains the way people learn,
how they learn best, and what they learn. To be effective,
the program should address a variety of learning styles
through age appropriate activities and presentation
techniques. This component introduces human development,
learning theory, appropriate presentation techniques,
and group management strategies.
Objectives
Upon completion of this component the learner will be
able to:
Apply
knowledge of developmental theory and learning styles
in a presentation;
Demonstrate
ways to address a variety of learning styles during
a presentation;
Describe
and apply at least three different presentation
techniques;
Select
group management strategies appropriate for a given
situation.
Approach
All people have preferred ways to learn. A background
in learning theory strengthens an interpreter's ability
to use effective teaching strategies and involve the
participants in different types of activities for different
purposes. Knowing the audience ahead of time gives the
interpreter the opportunity to better prepare and plan
to meet the group's needs. Organized groups tend to
be more uniform in their characteristics. It is important
to remember, however, that generalizations are used
as guidelines and may not apply equally to all the individuals
in each group. In any group with like characteristics,
there are individual differences. An interpreter must
avoid developing biases and stereotypes. (See Module
201: Identifying and Removing Bias from Education
and Interpretive Programs).
Effectively teaching a variety of learners requires
a toolbox of presentation techniques. Knowing which
technique to use in a particular situation facilitates
reaching instructional objectives. Developmental levels
and learning styles should guide the selection of presentation
techniques. For example, preschool students "look"
with their hands and benefit from hands-on learning.
In a natural resource, this could translate into preschoolers
learning about mollusks by handling seashells. At a
cultural park young children might unpack the bag of
an immigrant child to learn more about life in a different
time period. Techniques selected are important at all
age levels and differ in the complexity of issues addressed.
Choosing appropriate techniques to engage students
encourages involvement in the learning process. Participants
who are interested and involved are more likely to exhibit
appropriate behaviors. Setting appropriate expectations
for behavior, giving clear directions, and planning
for group movement sets the stage for a successful learning
experience and safe use of the resource.
Content
Outline
I.
Human Development
Human Development is a maturation process all individuals
go through from conception to death. Each age group
has characteristics that can be outlined as physical,
emotional, social, and cognitive development. Knowledge
of these characteristics can assist you in presenting
a program that meets the needs of the specific age group.
Characteristics
A. Physical (Psychomotor)- Activities focus on developing
physical skills
B. Emotional (Affective) - Activities focus on clarifying
values and feelings, based on emotional and social
development
C. Knowledge (Intellectual/Cognitive) - Activities
focus on concepts and content
The following is a list addressing age groups, characteristics,
and suggested learning activities based on human development.
The division between each age grouping is not precise
and overlapping occurs. The chart should be used as
a reference guide to help you plan your activities to
take advantage of the characteristics/developmental
levels of these groups.
Age
Group Characteristics Suggested Learning Activities
Ages 3-5 (Pre-School/ Kindergarten)
Physical
development:
Very energetic and active
Gross motor skills developing
(running, jumping, bicycle riding)
Intellectual:
Learning through senses
Developing vocabulary
Limited understanding of time
Unexplainable fears
Action precedes thought
Short attention span
Social:
Self-centered
Varying degrees of independence
Relationship with adults-most primary care person(s)
Spontaneous Storytelling, games, puppetry, nature walks,
songs, finger plays
What they can do: use crayons, write their name, like
to handle larger objects - very tactile
Ages
6-9 (Elementary)
Physical development:
Coordination improving
Fine motor skills developing (writing, keyboarding)
Intellectual:
Increased awareness of surroundings
Active learning/hands-on
Able to classify objects
Understanding change
Cause and effect
History is. . . olden days
Learning to follow directions
Social:
Pair relationships - best friends
Relationships with other adults
Trusting
Outgoing, busy
Blaming and tattling common
Believe things are alive and have feelings
What they can do: participate in organized sports,
writing skills improving, complete sentences and paragraphs,
imagination, simple rules for games
Ages
10-11 (Upper Elementary)
Physical development:
Wide variation in development
Gross motor skills developed
Fine motor skills steadily developing
Tires easily
Intellectual:
Concerned with things rather than ideas
Attention span 15-20 minutes per method
Ability to verbalize curiosities
Begins to contrast present with past
Able to draw conclusions
Personal values and opinions beginning to develop
Social:
Learning to cooperate; enjoy group activities
Boys/girls segregate; regard each other as silly
Competitive
Sensitive- fear of not being liked
Hands-on activities, self-guided discovery, group discussions,
hands-on activities, structured role plays, problem
solving, group activities, simulations
What they can do: sports related activities, can think
about objects that are not in front of them, can write
clearer, reason and problem solve
Ages
12-14 (Middle School or Junior High)
Physical development:
Rapid growth and development
Fine motor coordination
Wide variation in developing maturity
Onset of puberty
Intellectual:
Interested in ideas
Beginning to think abstractly
Longer attention span
Looking for new ways to do things
Eager to contribute in small group discussions
Needs guidance and focus for learning
Social:
Tendency to question authority
Self-conscious
Easily embarrassed
Needs approval
Developing an interest in the opposite sex
Hands-on activities, self-guided discovery, group discussions,
hands-on activities, structured role plays, problem
solving, group activities, simulations
What they can do: work in groups, write well, can organize
information, think in the abstract, can learn in social
situations
Ages
15-18 (High School)
Physical development:
Rapid physical changes
Great diversity in strength and size
Advancing sexual maturity
Periods of high energy, periods of fatigue
Intellectual:
Ability to think abstractly
Full comprehension of historical time
Concern for reasons and proof
Desire to do something well
Forms own opinions
Most have not made the connection between learning and
life's experiences
Social:
Vulnerable
Self-conscious and concerned about appearance
Needs peer group support, fearful of "looking stupid"
Fear of being singled out for attention
Tendency to question authority
Need to interact with adults as adults
Demonstrations, debates, open-ended discovery, open-ended
role playing, open-ended discussions, problem solving
What they can do: handle short lectures, think independently,
think about the parts of a whole, argue a position,
analyze information, synthesize and evaluate information.
Ages
18+ (Adults)
Physical development:
Slow physical changes
Great diversity in strength and size
Advancing to Golden Age with limiting abilities
Intellectual:
Ability to think abstractly
Full comprehension of historical time
Sensitive to multiple points of view
Forms own opinions
Eagerness to learn
Social:
Secure in who they are and less inhibited
Like the opportunity to interact with people that share
their interests
Speaks out on personal beliefs
Vast experience base
Demonstrations, debates, open-ended discovery, open-ended
role playing, open-ended discussions, problem solving.
What they can do: handle lectures, think independently,
think about the parts of a whole, argue a position,
analyze information, synthesize and evaluate information,
group discussions. Bring their own experience to the
discussions.
II.
Learning Styles
Everyone has preferred ways of learning, commonly called
learning styles. Effective presentations incorporate
a variety of learning styles so that each person has
an opportunity to work from their personal strengths.
There are several theories of how people learn. Below
are examples.
A. Multi-modal Learning is a sensory-oriented theory
based on how people receive information.
1. Aural: Learners prefer to learn new information
(and retain it) through hearing about it.
2. Visual: Learners prefer to learn new information
(and retain it) through seeing and reading about
it.
3. Tactile-kinesthetic: Learners prefer learning
new information (and retain it) through hands-on
activities.
B. Howard Gardner's "Multiple Intelligence"
(Armstrong 1994) theory is one of the more recently
developed theories and suggests there are at least
seven ways that people have of perceiving and understanding
the world.
1. Linguistic - being able to use language, the
flexibility of language, and many ways of communicating.
2. Logical-mathematical - being able to proceed
from ordering objects and assessing their quantity
to high level use of logic and science.
3. Spatial - being able to think about the world
spatially, perceive the visual world accurately,
and recreate aspects of one's spatial relations.
4. Bodily kinesthetic - being able to use the body
to solve problems or make things the way an engineer
or craftsperson would.
5. Musical - being able to respond to music, organize
it, and think about the world musically.
6. Interpersonal - being able to understand other
people, how to work with them, and how they are
motivated to work.
7. Intrapersonal - being able to understand self,
strengths and weaknesses, intelligence, fears, desires,
etc.
* A new addition to Multiple Intelligence incorporates:
8. Nature - being able to understand and connect
with nature, identifies plant and animal species
and understands natural systems (opportunity to
understand environmental context of parks with historic
focus also).
[Note: Traditional schooling heavily favors the verbal-linguistic
and logical-mathematical intelligence. Gardner suggests
a more balanced curriculum that incorporates the arts,
self-awareness, communication, and physical education.
Park settings offer opportunities to learn in non-classroom
settings.]
III.
Presentation Techniques
By addressing a variety of presentation techniques,
an interpreter can actively engage an organized group
into learning the significance of park resources while
relating to their learning objectives.
A. Small (collaborative) group work
1. students work in small groups (3-4) to participate
socially in a learning process;
2. each has a task or assignment;
3. results are shared with the large group.
B. Cooperative learning
1. each is a member of a learning team (3 - 5 participants)
2. each member has a task or assignment.
3. team is responsible for each member learning
and understanding the concept;
4. leads to higher-level thinking skill development
on the part of all the members of the team.
C. Active learning/hands-on learning
1. all participants have the opportunity to make
or play or do something that reinforces the theme;
2. Hands-on activities help students comprehend
abstract concepts. (For example, students learning
about weaving make potholders on a hand-held loom.)
D. Questioning
1. Types of questions encourage levels of thinking.
a. Convergent questions (closed questions)--encourage
lower-level thinking and test recall and acquisition
of knowledge.
b. Divergent questions (open-ended)--encourage innovative
solutions and new ideas and higher-level thinking
skills.
c. Evaluative questions--create a set of criteria
to validate an opinion.
d. Focus questions--provide a constant reminder
of the theme and goals of the presentation.
The way in which the park ranger responds to student
answers (and questions) can either help students
expand on their thoughts or close off the thought
process. (see lesson plan on Questioning Techniques,
in the Resources list for Module 103)
E. Discussion
1. group leader sets the parameters, communicates
procedures, states the purpose, and manages and
encourages the flow of conversation.
2. active listening techniques such as asking one
participant to acknowledge respectfully and comment
on the statement of another.
3. appropriate "wait-time" (a good rule
of thumb is to wait a full 10 seconds after asking
a question) to allow students to process content
or concepts.
F. Guided discovery
1. leads the learner through a series of activities
that lead to a conclusion by the learner without
giving away all the elements of surprise.
a. allows students to explore the content and concepts
in a way that protects the resource in an area where
they cannot necessarily see, feel, and touch the
resource
i. scavenger hunt
ii. "Fact, Find and Figure-out" sheet
IV.
Selecting a technique
A. Age appropriateness/developmental level
B. Logistics - Can the presentation technique work
in the space available?
C. Time constraints and balancing the program sections
D. Resource preservation considerations
E. Materials - amounts, condition
F. Connections to themes, goals, objectives
G. Amount of preparation to set up and take down the
activity
H. Understand your own biases and characteristics
of your target audience (home and community culture,
norms, etc.) that affect your program potential (see
Module 201--Identifying
and Removing Bias From Educational and Interpretive
Programming)
V.
Group management - Tips for working with a group
A. Directions need to be clearly stated when the
group is ready to receive the information. Participants
who are not physically or emotionally engaged are
not ready to be told what to do next. Directions and
requests should be stated in positive terms. Use "DO"
instead of "DON'T"", and model the
behavior you want your group to use. For example,
if you want them to raise their hand, raise your hand
while you are stating the rule.
B. Movement of groups needs to be planned in advance
in order to avoid injury to the student as well as
the resource.
C. Rules and expectations need to be clearly stated
at the beginning of the program, reinforced throughout,
and outlined or noted in your lesson plan. Work with
the group leader to designate roles and responsibilities.
The group leader should be responsible for discipline
and rules. Rules need to be enforced-set clear boundaries
and stick to them--be consistent.
D. "Plan B" - have a back-up plan in case
the first one does not work due to problems like a
rainy day or bus breakdown.
E. Engage the teachers/chaperones in managing the
group. They are the people who best know the members
of the group, and can make your job much easier.
Suggested
Developmental Activities
1. Identify the age or grade level of the group you
will choose for a program. Make arrangements with a
local school district to observe a class of this age
group for at least one full day. Record the developmental
characteristics you observe and incorporate this knowledge
into your program. After the observation, discuss with
the teacher why s/he chose the techniques used with
the students.
2. Attend a workshop on learning styles, critical thinking
skills, or human development. Incorporate that information
into your program planning. Present a brief training
session to your coworkers on what you learned in the
workshop.
3. Observe an experienced park ranger, guide, docent,
or teacher. Notice the variety of presentation and management
techniques used and their effectiveness. Discuss observations
with the presenter. Create a checklist of group management
techniques to try in different situations. Add to this
list whenever possible. Keep these in a notebook for
future reference. (see attached sample review sheets
for classroom/park curriculum program visits).
4. Start a personal record (journal, log, database)
of new techniques, noting the relative success of each.
Try to determine why each worked or didn't work.
5. Ask a teacher, peer, or supervisor to observe your
presentations and suggest ways you can improve your
overall group effectiveness.
Books,
Articles and Websites
The Paideia Program, Adler, Mortimer J., MacMillian
Publishers, New York, NY, 1984.
Earth Education: A New Beginning, Van Matre, Steve,
The Institute for Earth Education, Greenville, WV, 1990)
Chapter 5: Earth Education...The Ways.
Elementary School Science for the '90s. Louck-Horsley,
S., R. Kapitan, P.J. Kuerbis, R. C. Clark, G. M. Melle,
T.P. Sachse, and E. Walton, ASCD, 1990. Chapter 6.
Environmental Education at the Early Childhood Level,
Wilson, R., editor, North American Association for Environmental
Education, 1994. Page 35-48.
Programming for School Groups: A Guide for Interpreters,
Tevyaw, Kathleen, National Park Service, 1990.
Science Education Guidebook, Blakseslee, T., and J.
Kahan, Michigan Department of Education, Lansing, MI,
1996.
Classroom Management and Discipline: Methods to Facilitate
Cooperation and Instruction. Burden, Paul R., Longman
Publishers, 1990. Chapter 3: "Models of Discipline"
divides the models of discipline into three categories:
Low Teacher Control, Medium Teacher Control, and High
Teacher Control.
Classroom Management Strategies: Gaining and Maintaining
Students' Cooperation. Cangelosi, James S., 2nd edition,
Longman Publishers, 1993. Chapter 6: "Designing
and Conducting Engaging Learning Activities" gives
concrete examples of the connection between well-structured,
appropriate activities and good management skills.
Cooperative Learning Basic Strategies: Lessons for
U.S. History Teachers, Griswold, Robyn, and Audrey Rogers,
Golden Owl Publications, 1995.
Inspiring Active Learning: A Handbook for Teachers.
Harmin, Merrill, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 1994. This short book gives practical strategies
for engaging students in learning and offers a wide
variety of types of activities.
The
Interpretive Process Model, NPS Interpretive Development
Program, 2002. The Interpretive Process Model provides
a framework for the development of interpretive programs
and products. It consists of a sequence of activities
that guide an interpreter to develop opportunities for
their audiences to make emotional and intellectual connections
to the meanings of the resource, as well as cohesively
develop an idea or ideas that are relevant to the resource
and the audience.
Interpretive Skills Lesson Plans: Questioning Techniques;
How Children Learn; Understanding… (et.al.), 1992.
Interpretive
Techniques (39 Pages), NPS Interpretive Development
Program, 2003. The Complete
document 3,088KB; Cover
Page, 302KB; Part
1, 1,247KB; Part
II, 895KB; Part
III, 674KB; Part
IV, 295KB
Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction.
3rd edition. Orlich, Donald C., Donald P. Kauchak, Robert
J. Harder, R.A. Pendergrass, Richard C. Callahan, Andrew
J. Keogh, and Harry Gibson, D.C. Heath and Company,
1990, Chapter 6, "Deciding How to Ask Questions"
describes the different types of questions, and provides
strategies for conducting effective questioning sessions.
