Before the White Man

Artist's rendering of Griffin Wash Meddler's Point Archeological site

Nancy Dallett, At the Confluence of Change: 2008, 49.

Prehistoric People's on Today's Tonto National Forest

An excerpt from Nancy C. Dallett "One Land, Many peoples" in At the Confluence of Change: A History of Tonto National Monument. Western National Parks Association, 2008.

Approximately 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, the region now inhabited by contemporary populations was frequented seasonally by groups identified by archaeologists as Paleo-Indians. These early inhabitants engaged in the hunting of large megafauna, including camels, giant ground sloths, bison, and woolly mammoths. In addition to their hunting practices, they systematically gathered and processed various plant resources such as seeds, nuts, and berries. This combination of subsistence strategies reflects a complex adaptation to the environment, demonstrating both their mobility and resourcefulness in exploiting the diverse ecosystems available during that period.

Archaeologists designate the group of people who occupied the region approximately 10,000 years ago as the Archaic period peoples. Spanning a substantial timeframe from roughly 8,000 BCE to 100 CE, these populations underwent significant cultural and technological transformations. During this extensive period, there was a notable shift from a predominantly nomadic lifestyle to a more sedentary mode of living. This transition was accompanied by the advent of early agricultural practices, including the cultivation of maize (corn), which played a crucial role in sustaining larger, more stable communities.

In addition to changes in subsistence strategies, the Archaic period is marked by important advancements in hunting technologies. Earlier reliance on the atlatl—a spear-throwing implement that enhanced the velocity and range of launched spears—gradually gave way to the development and widespread adoption of the bow and arrow. This innovation represented a significant improvement in hunting efficiency and precision, allowing for greater success in procuring game. Collectively, these developments illustrate the adaptive strategies and technological ingenuity of Archaic period peoples as they laid the foundations for subsequent cultural complexities in the region.

Approximately two millennia ago, the inhabitants of the southwestern region commenced the utilization of ceramics, marking a significant advancement in their cultural development. Between 300 and 1400 AD, five distinct cultural groups emerged as notable manufacturers of pottery and constructors of substantial dwellings within sedentary villages. These groups, identified by archaeologists as the Hohokam, Mogollon, Sinagua, Ancestral Puebloan (formerly known as Anasazi), and Salado, played a pivotal role in shaping the historical landscape of the area.

By approximately 1,200 years ago, the Hohokam people, originating from the Salt and Gila River Valleys, had established sophisticated irrigation systems along Tonto Creek and the upper Salt River. These systems facilitated the cultivation of vital food crops such as Corn, Beans, Squash, and Cotton. In addition to their agricultural practices, the Hohokam engaged in hunting activities that included Deer, Cottontail Rabbits, and Jackrabbits. Their subsistence strategy was further complemented by the gathering of diverse natural resources, including Piñon Pine, Juniper, Agave, Walnut, and Manzanita.

The integration of these activities constituted a remarkably resilient and sustainable livelihood strategy, enabling the Hohokam culture to persist in the region until approximately 1450 C.E. Moreover, the movements of people and goods within this society extended across considerable distances, reflecting an extensive network of trade and exchange. Archaeological evidence, such as the discovery of shells at the Cliff Dwellings, suggests trade connections with communities residing near the Gulf of California, located hundreds of miles away. Additionally, Fir and Pine Timber were transported from sources located at least 25 kilometers distant, while white ware pottery was acquired from regions as far as 80 miles away.

This complex system of agriculture, hunting, gathering, and long-distance trade highlights the adaptability and interconnectedness of the Hohokam culture, underscoring their ability to thrive in the challenging environment of the American Southwest for several centuries.

The Tonto Basin, situated in the American Southwest, is a significant archaeological region renowned for its association with cliff dwellers. Geographically positioned between the desert-dwelling Hohokam to the south and the Ancestral Puebloan groups inhabiting the mountainous areas to the north and east, the basin represents a unique confluence of cultural traditions. This region is distinguished by a diverse array of architectural styles and material culture that embody both Hohokam and Ancestral Puebloan influences. Notably, these architectural forms frequently coexist within single sites, indicating a close interaction and cultural intermixing between the two populations.

Recent archaeological research posits that this intermingling occurred primarily from the late 13th century through the mid-15th century, a period marked by the depopulation of the Tonto Basin. The variety of site types found within the basin underscores the complexity of settlement patterns and social organization. These site typologies include Cliff Dwellings, Fieldhouses, Room blocks, Compounds, and Platform mounds, each reflecting different aspects of habitation and communal activities.

Material culture further illustrates the blend of traditions, particularly evident in the ceramic assemblages. Pottery types such as Roosevelt Red Ware and Red and White on Red are emblematic of Salado material culture and have been uncovered during systematic excavations at both the Upper and Lower Cliff Dwellings. These ceramics not only provide insight into the artistic expression and technological proficiency of the inhabitants but also serve as important chronological markers that aid in understanding the temporal context of occupancy in the Tonto Basin.

The Tonto Basin stands as a compelling example of cultural convergence in the Pre-Columbian Southwest, where architectural and ceramic evidence collectively reveal the dynamic interactions between Hohokam and Ancestral Puebloan societies. The ongoing study of this region continues to enrich our understanding of the complex socio-cultural landscapes that characterized this pivotal era in southwestern archaeology.

 

An Apache wickiup on the shore of Roosevelt Lake.

Nancy Dallett, At the Confluence of Change:2008, 49.

Southeastern Yavapai and Western Apaches in the Tonto Basin

The Cliff Dweller migration away from Tonto National Forest area circa 1450 C.E may have overlapped with the arrival of Southeastern Yavapai and Western Apache. Five bands of Apaches entered the area, possibly sometime after 1450 C.E: the Pinal, Aravaipa, Apache Peaks, Tonto, and San Carlos (today these groups comprise what is called the San Carlos Apache Tribe). The Tonto Apaches (who call themselves Dilzhe é), filtered into the Tonto Basin from the north and cultivated Corn, Beans, and Squash. The used fire to create the best rang conditions for hunting and gathering. They became skilled horseman as early as 1600, which greatly increased their ability to trade and raid over long distances.





Ancestors of the Yavapai and Apache
Over 700 years, their ancestor's way of life changed or merged into the Apache and Yavapai. It's also possible that they moved into the area long after a different people moved out of the cliff dwellings. Both the Yavapai and Western Apaches lived in the Tonto Basin. The two distinctly different languages intermixed and overlapped. Early American settlers often referred to all natives in the region as Tonto Apaches or Mohave Apaches.

The Yavapai and the Tonto Apaches are closely connected. In the 1800s, American settlers and soldiers often confused the two. The Yavapai and the Western Apaches lived similar ways of life, as nomadic hunters and gathers, but they represented completely different linguistic groups and might have different ancestry. Yet both groups have creation stories which trace their origins to the first humans who emerged from Montezuma Well. Tonto Apache and Yavapai history intermingled as they shared many struggles together.