1. Alfred Runte, "Yellowstone: It's Useless, So Why Not a Park?" National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 46 (March 1972): 4-7.

2. Wallace Stegner, "The Best Idea We Ever Had," Wilderness 46 (Spring 1983): 4.

3. The interpretive "edge" in management histories of the national parks is visibly underscored by the combative symbolism of several recent titles. See, for example, Carsten Lien, Olympic Battleground: The Power Politics of Timber Preservation (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1991); and Alfred Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990). Other important works include Richard J. Orsi, Alfred Runte, and Marlene Smith-Baranzini, eds., Yosemite and Sequoia: A Century of California National Parks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); and George M. Lubick, Petrified Forest National Park: A Wilderness Bound in Time (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996). A comprehensive history of the national monuments is Hal K. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989). See also Mark W. T. Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).

4. On the issue of population and development pressures now affecting the national parks, see Michael Frome, Regreening the National Parks (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992).

5. Timothy Egan, "New Gold Rush Stirs Fears of Exploitation," New York Times, August 14, 1994, pp. 1, 11; Todd Wilkinson, "Fool's Gold," National Parks 68 (July-August 1994): 31-35; Greater Yellowstone Coalition, "Mine From Hell" Threatens Yellowstone, undated brochure, ca. 1994; James Brooke, "Montana Mining Town Fights Gold Rush Plan," New York Times, January 7, 1996, p. 8.

6. The literature generated by the Yellowstone fires was exceptionally large, if highly repetitious. For a critical listing of the first major titles, see Alfred Runte, "Man Bites Dog in Yellowstone: The Fire Books of 1989," Montana: The Magazine of Western History 39 (Autumn 1989): 86-87.

7. See, for example, Richard A. Bartlett, "Nature is the Least of Yellowstone's Adversaries," Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1988, pt. 2, p. 5.

8. Richard A. Bartlett, Yellowstone: A Wilderness Besieged (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985); Alston Chase, Playing God in Yellowstone: The Destruction of America's First National Park (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986).

9. Stephen J. Pyne, "The Summer We Let Wild Fire Loose," Natural History (August 1989): 45-49. See also idem, "Letting Wild Fire Loose: The Fires of '88," Montana: The Magazine of Western History 39 (Summer 1989): 76-79. Another critical analysis is Alston Chase, "Greater Yellowstone and the Death and Rebirth of the National Parks Ideal," Orion Nature Quarterly 8 (Summer 1989): 44-55.

10. For an early analysis of Yellowstone's recovery, see George Wuerthner, "The Flames of '88," Wilderness 52 (Summer 1989): 41-54.

11. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, and U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, The Greater Yellowstone Area: A Briefing Guide (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987).

12. Jim Robbins, "Return of Wolves to West Brings Back Fear and Anger," New York Times, December 29, 1995, p. 7. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Yellowstone Today (Autumn 1995), p. 6. Recent books tracing the evolution of American attitudes toward wildlife and wilderness include Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); and Lisa Mighetto, Wild Animals and American Environmental Ethics (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).

13. Marc Reisner, "A Decision for the Desert," Wilderness 50 (Winter 1986): 33-53; California Desert Protection League, The California Desert: A Time to Protect Our Western Heritage, May 1993; Katharine Q. Seelye, "House Approves Desert Preserve in a Vast Expanse of California," New York Times, July 28, 1994, pp. 1, 10.

14. Timothy Egan, "New Parks Mix Public and Private, Uneasily," New York Times, December 26, 1994, pp. 1, 9.

15. The classic statement of this conviction remains Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949). For another twist on the argument, see William Cronon, "The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature," Environmental History 1 (January 1996): 7-28. A seminal defense of the national parks as natural environments is Robin Winks, "Dispelling the Myth," National Parks 70 (July-August 1996): 52-53.

16. John M. Broder, "Clinton Unveils Deal to Stop Yellowstone Mine" Los Angeles Times, August 13, 1996, p. 1.

1. Interpretive writings on the social, cultural, and intellectual significance of the national park idea are almost nonexistent. The standard work to date, for example, John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), is better described as a legislative and administrative history. Similarly, Freeman Tilden, The National Parks, 2d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), is a park-by-park compilation intended for general readers and tourists. Somewhat more interpretive, but now dated, is Harlean James, Romance of the National Parks (New York: Macmillan Co., 1939). Two books which have placed the national parks in a limited cultural context are Hans Huth, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957), and Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967). As their titles imply, however, neither deals specifically with the national parks; similarly, Huth devotes little attention to the reserves beyond the formative years of Yosemite and Yellowstone. An important article-length study on the origins of national parks as a democratic ideal is Roderick Nash, "The American Invention of National Parks," American Quarterly 22 (Fall 1970): 726-35.

2. George B. Tobey, A History of Landscape Architecture: The Relationship of People to Environment (New York: American Elsevier, 1973), pp. 25-52. Also relevant are Charles E. Doell and Gerald B. Fitzgerald, A Brief History of Parks and Recreation in the United States (Chicago: Athletic Institute, 1954), pp. 12-15; and Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1971), pp. 1-20.

3. Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, Mass.: G. and C. Merriam Co., 1961), p. 611.

4. More detailed discussions of Romanticism, deism, and primitivism maybe found in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 44-66, and Huth, Nature and the American, pp. 1-53.

5. Doell and Fitzgerald, Parks and Recreation in the United States, p. 19; Newton, Design on the Land, pp. 221-32; Frederick Law Olmsted, Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967), p. 54.

6. The definitive biography of Olmsted is Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973). Also of value is Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972).

7. Huth, Nature and the American, pp. 66-67. A more detailed analysis is Thomas Bender, "The 'Rural' Cemetery Movement: Urban Travail and the Appeal of Nature," New England Quarterly 47 (June 1974): 196-211.

8. Roper, FLO, pp. 126-28; Newton, Design on the Land, pp. 267-73; Doell and Fitzgerald, Parks and Recreation in the United States, pp. 23-41.

9. See Alfred Runte, "How Niagara Falls Was Saved: The Beginning of Esthetic Conservation in the United States," The Conservationist 26 (April-May 1972): 32-35, 43; idem, "Beyond the Spectacular: The Niagara Falls Preservation Campaign," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 57 (January 1973): 30-50. These should be supplemented with Roper, FLO, pp. 378-82, 395-97; and Charles M. Dow, The State Reservation at Niagara: A History (Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company, 1914).

10. Charles M. Dow, for example, in his Anthology and Bibliography of Niagara Falls, 2 vols. (Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company, 1921), 2:1059-93, annotates no less than seventeen published criticisms of this type between 1832 and 1859.

11. As quoted in George Wilson Pierson, Tocqueville in America (New York: Doubleday and Co., Anchor Books, 1959), p. 210.

12. As quoted in Dow, Anthology and Bibliography of Niagara Falls, 2:1070-71.

13. Ibid., p. 1075. Bonnycastle followed with a call of his own for protection of the cataract. "Niagara is ... a public property ... and should be protected from the rapacity of private speculators, and not made a Greenwich fair of; where peddlers and thimble-riggers, niggers and barkers, and lowest trulls of the vilest scum of society, congregate to disgust and annoy the visitors from all parts of the world, plundering and pestering them without control." Ibid., p. 1076.

14. The significance of the West in American culture continues to enjoy considerable treatment. Standard works include Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950); Ray Allen Billington, America's Frontier Heritage (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966); and Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957). Also relevant is Huth, Nature and the American, pp. 129-47.

15. Roper, FLO, pp. 6, 14, 378.

16. Runte, "Beyond the Spectacular," pp. 30-50. The Olmsted Papers, in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., are also rich on the Niagara campaign.

1. The role of American culture as a factor of environmental perception is a topic of increasing popularity among historians and geographers. Two recent studies are Robert Lemelin, Pathway to the National Character, 1830-1861 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1974), and David Lowenthal, "The Place of the Past in the American Landscape," chapter 4 in Geographies of the Mind: Essays in Historical Geosophy, ed. David Lowenthal and Martyn J. Bowden (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976). Neither study, however, does more than mention the national parks. Closer to my own interpretation of the origins of the national park idea is Paul Shepard, Man in the Landscape (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), pp. 246-58. Shepard, for example, notes the popularity of the image of the ruin among Yellowstone's early explorers. Also selective is Earl S. Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957), which focuses on the period between 1880 and 1920, after Yosemite and Yellowstone parks were established. A synthesis of both contemporary and historical literature as they pertain to cultural nationalism toward landscape is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), pp. 67-83, although again, Nash's vehicle is wilderness rather than the national parks per se.

2. The dated but still definitive biography of Samuel Bowles is George S. Merriam, The Life and Times of Samuel Bowles, 2 vols. (New York: Century Company, 1885).

3. Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography, 11 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963), 1:516; ibid., 4:530; Merriam, Samuel Bowles, 2:2, 81.

4. Samuel Bowles, Our New West (Hartford, Conn.: Hartford Publishing Company, 1869), pp. v-viii.

5. Samuel Bowles, Across the Continent (Springfield, Mass.: Samuel Bowles and Company, 1865), p. 231; idem, Our New West, p. 385.

6. The definitive biography of Moran is Thurman Wilkins, Thomas Moran: Artist of the Mountains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966). For Bierstadt there is Gordon Hendricks, Albert Bierstadt: Painter of the American West (New York: Henry N. Abrams, 1974). Relevant article-length studies are Gordon Hendricks, "The First Three Western Journeys of Albert Bierstadt," The Art Bulletin 46 (September 1964): 333-65; David W. Scott, "American Landscape: A Changing Frontier," Living Wilderness 33 (Winter 1969): 3-13; and William S. Talbot, "American Visions of Wilderness," Living Wilderness 33 (Winter 1969): 14-25. For an overall interpretation I am indebted to James Thomas Flexner, That Wilder Image (New York: Bonanza Books, 1962), pp. 135-36, 293-302.

7. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 17.

8. As quoted in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 68.

9. Ibid., p. 72.

10. James Fenimore Cooper, "American and European Scenery Compared," Chapter 3 of Washington Irving, et al., The Home Book of the Picturesque (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1852), pp. 61, 69.

11. Ibid., pp. 52, 66, 69.

12. Susan Fenimore Cooper, "A Dissolving View," Chapter 5 in ibid., pp. 81-82, 88-94.

13. Regarding the Atlantic coast, for example, James Fenimore Cooper noted: "[it] is, with scarcely an exception, low, monotonous and tame. It wants Alpine rocks, bold promontories, visible heights inland, and all those other glorious accessories of the sort that render the coast of the Mediterranean the wonder of the world." Ibid., p. 54. Similarly, Washington Irving bemoaned that the mountains of the East "might have given our country a name, and a poetical one, had not the all-controlling powers of common-place determined otherwise." Ibid., p. 72. European writers as well picked up on the theme; see, e.g., Alexis de Tocqueville's impressions of the East in George Wilson Pierson, Tocqueville in America (New York: Doubleday and Co., Anchor Books, 1959), pp. 122, 178-79.

14. Irving, et al., Home Book of the Picturesque, p. 52.

15. Histories of the acquisition of the public domain include Marion Clawson, The Land System of the United States (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1968), pp. 38, 41-42; Roy M. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962); and Everett Dick, The Lure of the Land (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970).

16. A general treatment of the discovery of both wonders may be found in Francis P. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965), pp. 71-85. Yosemite, which means "great full-grown grizzly bear," was the stronghold of the Ahwahneechee Indians until 1851, when they were finally dispossessed of their home by a battalion of California miners. For a complete history of the valley see Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite (Yosemite National Park: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1968).

17. A. V. Kautz, "Ascent of Mount Rainier," Overland Monthly 14 (May 1874): 394; James M. Hutchings, Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California (London: Chapman and Hall, 1865), p. 134; William H. Brewer, Up and Down California in 1860-64, ed. Francis P. Farquhar (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930), pp. 404-405.

18. Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859 (New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker and Co., 1860), pp. 306-307; Bowles, Across the Continent, pp. 223-24. Bowles patriotism was further swelled by "The Three Brothers," "Cathedral Rocks," and "The Cathedral Spires." Indeed, he maintained, the formations united "the great impressiveness, the beauty and the fantastic form of the Gothic architecture. From their shape and color alike, it is easy to imagine, in looking upon them, that you are under the ruins of an old Gothic cathedral, to which those of Cologne and Milan are but baby-houses." See pp. 226-27.

19. The Staubach is in the Bernese Alps in southern Switzerland.

20. Thomas Starr King, "A Vacation Among the Sierras," Boston Evening Transcript, January 26, 1861, p. 1.

21. Bowles, Across the Continent, pp. 228-29; Albert D. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867), p. 426.

22. The Sierra redwoods, Sequoia gigantea, are not to be confused with the California coast redwoods, Sequoia sempervirens. For the sake of clarity and consistency I have chosen to call each by their most popular common name as determined by Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 83-89.

23. Clarence King, Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada (Boston: James R. Osgood and Co., 1872), pp. 41-43; Greeley, An Overland Journey, pp. 311-12. Similar observations, again, may be gleaned from the chronicles of the large majority of other early explorers. See, for example, Bowles, Across the Continent, p. 237; and Fitz Hugh Ludlow, "Seven Weeks in the Great Yo-Semite," Atlantic Monthly 13 (June 1864): 744-45.

24. Richardson, Beyond the Mississippi, p. i.

25. Ibid.

26. Again I am indebted to Flexner, That Wilder Image, pp. 60-76, 266-84. Also relevant is Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 78-83.

27. Flexner, That Wilder Image, pp. 293-302.

28. Ironically, both were European-born. In 1831, when Albert Bierstadt was one year old, his family moved from its home near Dusseldorf, Germany, to New Bedford, Massachusetts. Between 1853 and 1857 young Albert returned to Germany to study landscape painting. Moran, born in Bolton, England, in 1837, also left Europe at an early age when his father moved the family to Baltimore, Maryland, in 1844.

29. Hendricks, Albert Bierstadt, p. 94. Other scholarly accounts of Bierstadt's early career include Harold McCracken, Portrait of the Old West (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952), pp. 137-42; Flexner, That Wilder Image, pp. 294-99; and Hendricks, "The First Three Western Journeys of Albert Bierstadt," pp. 333-65.

30. Hendricks, Albert Bierstadt, pp. 130-35, 154-65. Both The Rocky Mountains and Domes of the Yosemite are beautifully reproduced in this volume, on pp. 150-51 and 162-63 respectively.

31. On Watkins see Hans Huth, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957), pp. 145, 149-51; and Brewer, Up and Down California in 1860-64, pp. 406, 413.

32. See Hendricks, Albert Bierstadt, passim.

33. These paintings in 1977 were owned by Hirschl and Adler Galleries, Inc., New York City, and the National Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

34. George Catlin, Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians, 2 vols. (London: H. G. Bohn, 1851), 1: 262.

35. Robert Lemelin, in Pathway to the National Character, p. 24, notes that 40,000 visitors annually saw Niagara Falls as early as 1849.

36. The most entertaining account of this exchange is Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, p. 87.

37. Ibid., pp. 84-85.

38. As quoted in Joseph H. Engbeck, Jr., The Enduring Giants (Berkeley: University Extension, University of California, in cooperation with the California Department of Parks and Recreation, Save-the-Redwoods League, and the Calaveras Grove Association, 1973), p. 77.

39. The best account of the deliberations leading up to the preservation of Yosemite Valley is Hans Huth, "Yosemite: The Story of An Idea," Sierra Club Bulletin 33 (March 1948): 63-76. Also relevant is Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp. 28-29.

40. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st sess., May 17, 1864, pp. 2300-2301.

41. U.S., Statutes at Large, 13 (1864): 325.

42. Ibid.

43. Frederick Law Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," ed. Laura Wood Roper, Landscape Architecture 43 (October 1952): 16-17; idem, "Governmental Preservation of Natural Scenery," March 8, 1890, printed circular. United States Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., Olmsted Papers, Box 32.

44. The standard biography of Muir is Linnie Marsh Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness: The Life of John Muir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945). Roderick Nash adds measurably to her interpretation, however, in Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 122-40. Also of importance is William F. Bade, ed., The Life and Letters of John Muir, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924).

45. John Muir, "Flood-Storm in the Sierra," Overland Monthly 14 (June 1875): 496.

46. The impact of the quote is discussed in Merle Curti, The Growth of American Thought, 3d ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), pp. 237-38.

1. The latest scholarship on Yellowstone National Park is Richard A. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974); Aubrey L. Haines, Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office and National Park Service, 1974); and Aubrey L. Haines, The Yellowstone Story, 2 vols. (Yellowstone National Park: Yellowstone Library and Museum Association in cooperation with Colorado Associated University Press, 1977). None of these studies, however, adds to our knowledge about the origins of the national park idea. Bartlett, for example, p. 194, lays the foundation of Yellowstone to "the growth of the American's love for his land for its beauty rather than for its wealth," yet does not define precisely what emotions provoked that "love."

2. As its name implies, Yellowstone was named after the brilliantly-colored rocks found throughout the region, particularly in the walls of the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River.

3. For the history of Yellowstone during the fur-trade era, see Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone, pp. 93-116.

4. With the revelation of Yellowstone to the nation at-large, the literature, both contemporary and historical, becomes more voluminous. Included for the ventures of 1869 are Charles W. Cook, David E. Folsom, and William Peterson, The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone, ed. Aubrey L. Haines (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), pp. 3-7; W. Turrentine Jackson, "The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone, 1869," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 32 (July 1941): 307-12; and Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone, 117-21, 147-51.

5. Both Cook and Folsom were born and raised in the East, in Maine and New Hampshire respectively. Peterson, from Denmark, may also be considered among those whose native geographical inheritance was scant preparation for the full impact of Western scenery. For a more detailed suggestion of the cultural legacy that influenced the perceptions of Yellowstone's early explorers, consult the biographical data in Haines, Yellowstone National Park, pp. 133-52.

6. Charles W. Cook, "The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone," Western Monthly 4 (July 1870): 61.

7. Ibid., p. 64.

8. Their article, just cited above, initially was rejected by the New York Tribune, Scribner's, and Harper's, all of which considered it either fictitious or unreliable. Jackson, "The Cook-Folsom Exploration," pp. 316-17.

9. Louis C. Cramton, Early History of Yellowstone National Park and Its Relation to National Park Policies (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office and National Park Service, 1932), pp. 12-13; W. Turrentine Jackson, "The Washburn-Doane Expedition into the Upper Yellowstone," Pacific Historical Review 10 (June 1941): 189-91; Nathaniel Pitt Langford, The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972), pp. vii-xvii.

10. There is no standard title for the expedition; for clarity and consistency only Washburn's name will subsequently be used.

11. Nathaniel P. Langford, "The Wonders of the Yellowstone," I, Scribner's Monthly 2 (May 1871): 13.

12. Evert's personal account appeared the following year as "Thirty-Seven Days of Peril," Scribner's Monthly 3 (November 1871): 1-17.

13. The Report of Lieutenant Gustavus C. Doane upon the so-called Yellowstone Expedition of 1870, S. Ex. Doc. 51, 41st Cong., 3d sess., March 3, 1871, as quoted from Cramton, Early History of Yellowstone National Park, p. 142; Nathaniel P. Langford, "The Wonders of the Yellowstone," II (June 1871): 127.

14. A selection is reprinted in Cramton, Early History of Yellowstone National Park, pp. 90-110.

15. The explorers named the stream "Tower Creek" and its cataract "Tower Fall." Langford, The Discovery of Yellowstone Park, pp. 21-22.

16. "The Yellowstone Expedition," New York Times, October 14, 1870, p.4.

17. Washburn, however, had died in January.

18. W. Turrentine Jackson, "Governmental Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone, 1871," Pacific Historical Review 11 (June 1942): 189-90; Bartlett Nature's Yellowstone, pp. 188-89. The progress of the Hayden Survey through Yellowstone is further detailed in Richard A. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), pp.40-56; and William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), pp. 504-508.

19. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, pp. 40-41; idem, Nature's Yellowstone, p. 189.

20. W. H. Jackson's autobiography, Time Exposure (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1940), pp. 186-203, is a very entertaining account of his work on the Hayden Survey.

21. A brief history of this painting is in Thurman Wilkins, Thomas Moran: Artist of the Mountains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), pp. 3-5, 68-70.

22. The springs were already known to invalids and miners in the region. See W. H. Jackson, Time Exposure, p. 198.

23. Preliminary Report of the United States Geological Survey of Montana and Portions of Adjacent Territories; Being a Fifth Annual Report, by F. V. Hayden (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872), pp. 83-84. Moran's painting, since restored, now hangs in the National Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonian Institution, Washing ton, D.C.

24. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, pp. 49-56; Jackson, "Governmental Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone," pp. 194-97.

25. On this debate see Haines, Yellowstone National Park, pp. 111-12; Hans Huth, "Yosemite: The Story of An Idea," Sierra Club Bulletin 33 (March 1948): 72-76; and Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp. 26-28.

26. Langford, Discovery of Yellowstone Park, pp. 117-18.

27. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone, pp. 202-206; Cramton, Early History of Yellowstone National Park, pp. 28-35; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), p. 110; Haines, Yellowstone National Park, p. 180, fn. 9.

28. U.S., Statutes at Large, 17 (1872): 32-33.

29. Langford, Discovery of Yellowstone Park, pp. 96-97.

30. Cornelius Hedges, "The Great Falls of the Yellowstone: A Graphic Picture of Their Grandeur and Beauty," Helena Daily Herald, October 15, 1871, as quoted in Cramton, Early History of Yellowstone National Park, p. 100.

31. Langford, "Wonders of the Yellowstone," I, pp. 7, 8, 12; II, p. 124. The host of similar perceptions would also include Ferdinand V. Hayden, "The Wonders of the West—II: More About the Yellowstone," Scribner's Monthly 3 (February 1872): passim; idem, "The Hot Springs and Geysers of the Yellowstone and Firehole Rivers," The American Journal of Science and Arts 103 (February 1872): 105-15; (March 1872): 161-76; and Walter Trumbull, "The Washburn Yellowstone Expedition," Overland Monthly 6 (May 1871): 431-37; (June 1871): 489-96.

32. W. Turrentine Jackson, "The Creation of Yellowstone National Park," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 29 (September 1942): 192-93. Similarly, at Mammoth Hot Springs, F. V. Hayden noted that "two men have already pre-empted 320 acres of land covering most of the surface occupied by the active springs, with the expectation that upon the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad this will be come a famous place of resort for invalids and pleasure-seekers." Hayden, "The Wonders of the West—II," pp. 390-91.

33. As quoted in Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone, pp. 206-207.

34. Jackson, "Creation of Yellowstone National Park," p. 202.

35. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, The Yellowstone Park, H. Rept. 26 to accompany H. R. 764, 42d Cong., 2d sess., February 27, 1872, pp. 1-2.

36. The bill's sponsor in the Senate, for example, Samuel Pomeroy of Kansas, introduced it "as the result of the exploration, made by Professor Hayden.... With a party he explored the headwaters of the Yellowstone and found it to be a great natural curiosity, great geysers, as they are termed, water spouts, and hot springs, and having platted the ground himself, and having given me the dimensions of it, the bill was drawn up, as it was thought best to consecrate and set apart this great place of national resort, as it may be in the future, for the purposes of public enjoyment." U. S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 42d Cong., 2d sess., January 23, 1872, p. 520.

37. Hiram Martin Chittenden, The Yellowstone National Park (Cincinnati: The Robert Clarke Company, 1895), pp. 93-95; Wilkins, Thomas Moran, pp. 69-71; Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, p. 57. The park movement, if not all of its motives, has now been extensively treated; see, e.g., Haines, Yellowstone National Park, Part III; and Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone, Chapter 9.

38. Jackson, "Creation of Yellowstone National Park," pp. 195-97; Cramton, Early History of Yellowstone National Park, p. 32; Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone, pp. 198-99. Others believed to have worked on the bill include Delegate William Clagett of Montana, Nathaniel P. Langford, and F. V. Hayden.

39. U.S., Statutes at Large, 17(1872): 32-33. The inclusion of timber on the list, however, should not be taken as evidence that Yellowstone was also intended to be a forest preserve. The absence of high-quality timber in the region was mentioned by Cornelius Cole before the Senate; the assessment could only have come from the explorers themselves, who undoubtedly based their claim on their experiences with the maze of thin, tumbled pines south of Yellowstone Lake. More likely the wording was intended to forestall the cutting of trees by those who wished to fence off the geysers and hot springs.

1. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st sess., May 17, 1864, pp. 2300-2301.

2. Initial expressions of this thesis include Alfred Runte, "Yellowstone: It's Useless, So Why Not a Park?" National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 46 (March 1972): 4-7; and idem, "'Worthless' Lands: Our National Parks," American West 10 (May 1973): 4-11.

3. U.S., Statutes at Large, 13 (1864): 325.

4. William H. Goetzmann, for example, in Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), p. 498, refers to Hayden as "par excellence the businessman's geologist."

5. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, The Yellowstone Park, H. Rept. 26 to accompany H. R. 764, 42d Cong., 2d sess., February 27, 1872, pp. 1-2.

6. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 42d Cong., 2d sess., January 30, 1872, p. 697.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Globe, 42d Cong., 2d sess., February 27, 1872, p. 1243.

10. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Globe, 42d Cong., 2d sess., January 30, 1872, p. 697.

11. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Globe, 42d Cong., 2d sess., February 27, 1872, p. 1243.

12. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), pp. 20-22.

13. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 48th Cong., 1st sess., May 27, 1884, pp. 4547-53; Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 42-43; Richard A. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974), pp. 141-42.

14. Although several were proposed, none were enacted.

15. U.S., Statutes at Large, 18(1875): 517-18. Actually the park was superimposed on a military site. Section 3 of the enabling act, for example, provided that "any part of the park hereby created shall be at all times available for military purposes, either as a parade ground or drill ground, in time of peace, or for complete occupation in time of war.... The reserve might "also be used for the erection of any public buildings or works."

16. Two detailed analyses of the anxiety aroused by the close of the frontier are Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957), pp. 93-103, 152-58; and Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), pp. 143-47.

17. George B. Tobey, Jr., A History of Landscape Architecture: The Relationship of People to Environment (New York: American Elsevier, 1973), p. 271.

18. As quoted in Kermit Vanderbilt, Charles Eliot Norton: Apostle of Culture in a Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1959), p. 190. Norton, a committed scenic preservationist, participated in the campaigns to save Niagara Falls and the Adirondack forests of northern New York State, the former in cooperation with Frederick Law Olmsted. The Olmsted Papers, housed in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., contain a considerable number of letters written between the two men.

19. Alfred Runte, "Beyond the Spectacular: The Niagara Falls Preservation Campaign," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 57 (January 1973): 30-50.

20. State of New York, State Land Survey, Report on the Adirondack State Land Surveys to the Year 1886, by Verplanck Colvin (Albany: Weed, Parsons and Co., 1886), pp. 5-7.

21. Ibid., pp. 5-7; Runte, "Beyond the Spectacular," pp. 48-50; N. F. Dreisziger, "The Campaign to Save Niagara Falls and the Settlement of United States-Canadian Differences, 1906-1911," New York History 55 (October 1974): 437-58.

22. John Muir, "Studies in the Sierra: Mountain Building," Overland Monthly 14 (January 1875): 65; William Frederick Bade, ed., The Life and Letters of John Muir, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924), 2: 237.

23. State of California, Geological Survey, The Yosemite Guide Book, by J. D. Whitney (Cambridge, Mass.: University Press, 1869), p. 21; Robert Underwood Johnson, "The Case for Yosemite Valley," Century Magazine 39 (January 1890): 478.

24. Linnie Marsh Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness: The Life of John Muir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945), pp. 244-46; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 130-32.

25. Robert Underwood Johnson, Remembered Yesterdays (Boston: Little, Brown, 1923), pp. 279-80; Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), p. 43.

26. John Muir, "The Treasures of the Yosemite," Century Magazine 40 (August 1890): 487-88.

27. John Muir," Features of the Proposed Yosemite National Park," Century Magazine 40 (September 1890): 666-67; idem, "The Treasures of the Yosemite," p. 483.

28. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 100-104; Douglas Hillman Strong, A History of Sequoia National Park (Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University, 1964), pp. 61-62.

29. Strong, A History of Sequoia National Park, pp. 63-92.

30. Ibid., pp. 112-22; Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp. 46-47.

31. Bade, Life and Letters of John Muir, 2: 244-45.

32. Actually Sequoia passed as two separate bills. The first created a small reserve of roughly 75 square miles; the second enlarged it to 250. Who championed the follow-up piece of legislation remains a question of considerable intrigue. Strong, A History of Sequoia National Park, pp. 110-12.

33. U.S., Statutes at Large, 26 (1890): 478, 650-52; U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 51st Cong., 1st sess., August 23, 1890, pp. 9072-73; U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 51st Cong., 1st sess., September 8, 1890, p. 9829; U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 51st Cong., 1st sess., September 30, 1890, pp. 10751-52; U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 51st Cong., 1st sess., September 30, 1890, p. 10740.

34. U.S., Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1890 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1890), pp. 123-26. Noble also named the parks, since Congress had merely set forth their boundaries.

35. U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, S. Doc. 34, 58th Cong., 3d sess., December 13, 1904, pp. 1-20. The figures are given in Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 70.

36. Muir's petition against the deletion, authored with Joseph N. Le Conte and William E. Colby on behalf of the Sierra Club, is reprinted in U.S., Congress, Senate, Report of the Yosemite Park Commission, p. 51.

1. Carl Snyder, "Our New National Wonderland," Review of Reviews 9 (February 1894): 164, 169, 171.

2. John Muir, "The Wild Parks and Forest Reservations of the West," Atlantic Monthly 81 (January 1898): 26-28.

3. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), pp. 121-25; U.S., Statutes at Large, 30 (1899): 993-95. An administrative history of the reserve is Arthur D. Martinson, "Mount Rainier National Park: First Years," Forest History 10 (October 1966): 26-33. Also see idem, Mountain in the Sky: A History of Mount Rainier National Park (Ph.D. diss. Washington State University, 1966).

4. Freeman Tilden, The National Parks (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), pp. 115-16; Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 128-29.

5. W. G. Steel, The Mountains of Oregon (Portland, Ore.: David Steel, 1890), pp. 32-33. Steel first visited Crater Lake in 1885.

6. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 57th Cong., 1st sess., April 19, 1902, p. 4450.

7. Ibid., pp. 4450, 4453; U.S Statutes at Large, 32(1902): 202-3.

8. The standard departure for the origins of utilitarian conservation is Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959). Also valuable is Elmo R. Richardson, The Politics of Conservation: Crusades and Controversies, 1897-1913 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1962). Donald C. Swain extends the period of their investigation with Federal Conservation Policy, 1921-1933 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963).

9. Of the national population in 1910 (91,972,266), but 2,633,517 lived in the Rocky Mountain states, and only 4,192,304 in all of Washington, Oregon, and California. U.S., Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, 13 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 1:30.

10. John Ise, The United States Forest Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1920), pp. 109-18, 120; Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, p. 47.

11. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, pp. 14-15, 122-46; Ise, The United States Forest Policy, pp. 143-63; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), pp. 149-53.

12. Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1910), p. 45. Pinchot, an 1889 graduate of Yale University, immediately sailed to Europe to study forestry in England, France, and Germany, there being no equivalent training available in the United States at that time. He describes his life and career in Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1947). On his early relationship with President Roosevelt, see pp. 188-97. Two important biographies of Pinchot are M. Nelson McGeary, Gifford Pinchot (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), and Harold T. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot: Public and Private Forester (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970). Douglas H. Strong also provides a detailed synthesis of Pinchot's influence in The Conservationists (Menlo Park, Calif.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1971), pp. 65-89.

13. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, pp. 39-44.

14. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, pp. 263-76.

15. U.S., Statutes at Large, 34 (1906): 225.

16. A detailed account of the national monuments and their establishment maybe found in Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 143-62. He ignores, however, the cultural significance behind their creation.

17. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Parks and Landmarks (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 14, 20; Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 231, 383-84.

18. U.S., Statutes at Large, 34 (1906): 225; Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 383-84.

19. The establishment of the park is described in Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 164-70.

20. Grinnell's early career is revealed in John F. Reiger, ed., The Passing of the Great West: Selected Papers of George Bird Grinnell (New York: Winchester Press, 1972).

21. See, for example, George Bird Grinnell, "Protection of the National Park," New York Times, January 29, 1885, p. 6. John F. Reiger provides a sympathetic account of Grinnell's work on behalf of Yellowstone in American Sportsmen and the Origins of Conservation (New York: Winchester Press, 1975), pp. 98-141.

22. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Early History of Glacier National Park, Montana, by Madison Grant (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1919), pp. 5-7; George Bird Grinnell, "The Crown of the Continent," Century Magazine 62 (September 1901): 660-72.

23. Rufus Steele, "The Son Who Showed His Father: The Story of How Jim Hill's Boy Put a Ladder to the Roof of his Country," Sunset Magazine 34 (March 1915): 473-85; Alfred Runte, "Pragmatic Alliance: Western Railroads and the National Parks," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (April 1974): 15.

24. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 61st Cong., 2d sess., January 25, 1910, pp. 958-60; ibid., February 9,1910, pp. 1639-41.

25. Ibid., April 14, 1910, p. 4669; U.S., Statutes at Large, 36 (1910): 354-355. Two recent histories of the park are Curt W. Buchholtz, Man in Glacier (West Glacier, Mont.: Glacier Natural History Association, 1976), and Warren L. Hanna, Montana's Many-Splendored Glacierland (Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1976).

26. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, Rocky Mountain National Park, Hearings on S. 6309, 63d Cong., 3d sess., December 23, 1914, pp. 7-22.

27. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 63d Cong., 3d sess., January 18,1915, pp. 1789-91; U.S Statutes at Large, 38(1915): 798-800.

28. See, for example, John Muir, "Hetch Hetchy Valley: The Lower Tuolumne Yosemite," Overland Monthly 2 (June 1873): 42-50; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 161-62.

29. U.S., Department of the Interior, Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1903 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903), p. 156.

30. Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp. 95-100.

31. Prior histories include Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, pp. 85-169; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, chapter 10; Elmo R. Richardson, "The Struggle for the Valley: California's Hetch Hetchy Controversy, 1905-1913," California Historical Society Quarterly 38 (September 1959): 249-58; and Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 85-96. None of these accounts may be considered definitive, however, inasmuch as each approaches the controversy within the context of simply events or of other major themes.

32. The House vote was 183 to 43, with 194 absent. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 63d Cong., 1st sess., September 3, 1913, p.4151. In the Senate the tally was 43 for, 25 against, and 27 either absent or not voting. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 63d Cong., 2d sess., December 6,1913, pp. 385-86.

33. See, for instance, James D. Phelan, "Why Congress Should Pass the Hetch Hetchy Bill," Outlook 91 (February 13, 1909): 340-41.

34. John P. Young, "The Hetch Hetchy Problem," Sunset Magazine 22 (June 1909): 606.

35. The photograph is reproduced in Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club, opposite p. 112. It originally appeared as part of a series in San Francisco, California, Board of Supervisors, On the Proposed Use of a Portion of the Hetch Hetchy ... by John R. Freeman (San Francisco: Rincon Publishing Co., 1912), pp. 5-56.

36. Letter, J. Horace McFarland to Robert Underwood Johnson, October 31, 1913, University of California, Berkeley, Bancroft Library, Robert Underwood Johnson Papers, Box 3.

37. Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 94.

1. John Muir, "The Wild Parks and Forest Reservations of the West," Atlantic Monthly 81 (January 1898): 15; Allen Chamberlain, "Scenery as a National Asset," Outlook 95 (May 28, 1910): 169.

2. An article-length study of the role of the railroads in national park development is Alfred Runte, "Pragmatic Alliance: Western Railroads and the National Parks," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (April 1974): 14-21.

3. A noted confrontation between John Muir and Gifford Pinchot over development of the national forests is recounted in Linnie Marsh Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness: The Life of John Muir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945), pp. 275-76. The emerging split between preservationists and utilitarianists is further documented in Douglas H. Strong, "The Rise of American Esthetic Conservation," National Parks Magazine 44 (February 1970): 5-7; and Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959): 189-98.

4. U.S., Statutes at Large, 26 (1890): 651.

5. Holway R. Jones provides a complete listing in John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), pp. 4-5, n. 5.

6. The role of nature in suburbia is discussed by Peter J. Schmidt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 1-32.

7. The J. Horace McFarland Papers, housed in the William Penn Memorial Museum, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Division of Archives and Manuscripts, Harrisburg, is an invaluable collection for both the Niagara controversy and national park history between 1904 and 1949.

8. J. Horace McFarland, "Shall We Make a Coal-Pile of Niagara?" Ladies' Home Journal 23 (October 1906): 39.

9. Ibid.

10. Chamberlain to McFarland, April 22, 1908, McFarland Papers, Box 16; Colby to Chamberlain, April 16, 1908, McFarland Papers, Box 16.

11. Colby to Pinchot, April 20, 1908, McFarland Papers, Box 16.

12. McFarland to Pinchot, November 26, 1909, McFarland Papers, Box 16.

13. See, for example, James D. Phelan, "Why Congress Should Pass the Hetch Hetchy Bill," Outlook 91 (February 13, 1909): 340-41.

14. William Frederick Bade, for example, director of the Sierra Club and vice-president of the Western Branch of the Society for the Preservation of National Parks, wrote: "As soon as a good road is built to Hetch-Hetchy and transportation facilities provided, hotels will spring up, and the tide of tourist travel ... will turn to Hetch-Hetchy in both winter and summer." Bade to Richard A. Ballinger, undated, McFarland Papers, Box 16.

15. J. Horace McFarland, "Shall We Have Ugly Conservation?" Outlook 91 (March 13, 1909): 595; Chamberlain to McFarland, March 18, 1909, McFarland Papers, Box 16.

16. Chamberlain, "Scenery as a National Asset," pp. 162-64.

17. Roderick Nash, in Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), p. 170, maintains that preservationists lack of mention about wilderness was a "tactical error" which cost them "considerable support." In retrospect, however, it must be conceded that the American public as a whole still viewed the national parks as a visual experience rather than an emotional one.

18. Chamberlain, "Scenery as a National Asset," pp. 165, 169.

19. Runte, "Pragmatic Alliance: Western Railroads and the National Parks," pp. 14-21. The topic is further explored in idem, "The Yosemite Valley Railroad: Highway of History, Pathway of Promise," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (December 1974): 4-9; and idem, "Blueprint for Comfort: A National Park-to-Park Railway," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 50 (November 1976): 8-10.

20. Watrous to McFarland, August 18, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 17; Watrous to McFarland, September 6, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 17.

21. U.S., Department of the Interior, Proceedings of the National Park Conference Held at Yellowstone National Park September 11 and 12, 1911 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1912), p. 4.

22. Ibid., pp. 5-17.

23. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 61st Cong., 2d sess., January 25, 1910, p. 961; U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 63d Cong., 3d sess., January 18, 1915, p. 1790.

24. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 63d Cong., 3d sess., January 18, 1915, p. 1790.

25. Earl Pomeroy develops this perception of the West and its impact on tourism throughout In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957). See especially chapter l.

26. Runte, "Pragmatic Alliance: Western Railroads and the National Parks," pp. 14-15; Mary Roberts Rinehart, "Through Glacier National Park with Howard Eaton," Part II, Collier's 57 (April 29, 1916): 26.

27. Mary Roberts Rinehart, "Through Glacier National Park with Howard Eaton," Part I, Collier's 57 (April 22, 1916): 11.

28. Typed transcript, R. B. Marshall, "Our National Parks," March 6, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 22.

29. George Otis Smith, "The Nation's Playgrounds," American Review of Reviews 40 (July 1909): 44; R. B. Marshall, "Our National Parks."

30. Typed transcript, Mark R. Daniels, "Address Before the Tenth Annual Convention of the American Civic Association," December 3, 1914, McFarland Papers, Box 22.

31. McFarland to C. R. Miller, November 24, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 19.

32. Ibid.

33. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), p. 384.

34. H. Duane Hampton, How the United States Cavalry Saved the National Parks (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1971), passim.

35. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 27, 133.

36. Ibid., p. 188.

37. McFarland to C. R. Miller, November 24, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 19; Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., to John Olmsted, December 19, 1910, McFarland Papers, Box 20.

38. McFarland to Overton W. Price, October 30, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 20; McFarland to Olmsted, April 17, 1916, McFarland Papers, Box 20.

39. Pinchot to McFarland, March 4, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 20; McFarland to Chamberlain, April 2, 1914, McFarland Papers, Box 18. For a summary of the circumstances surrounding Pinchot's removal as chief forester, see Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, pp. 165-74.

40. Harold J. Howland to Richard B. Watrous, January 9, 1912, McFarland Papers, Box 21; editorial, "A National Park Service," Outlook 100 (February 3, 1912): 246.

41. McFarland to Olmsted, April 17, 1916, McFarland Papers, Box 20; Pinchot to McFarland, March 4, 1911, McFarland Papers, Box 20.

42. See, for example, U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, National Park Service, Hearings on H. R. 434 and H. R. 8668, 64th Cong., 1st sess., 1916, pp. 63-69.

43. As quoted in U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, National Park Service, Hearings on H. R. 104, 63d Cong., 2d sess., 1914, p. 9.

44. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, Establishment of a National Park Service, Hearings on H. R. 22995, 62d Cong., 2d sess., 1912, p. 7.

45. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, National Park Service, Hearings on H. R. 434 and H. R. 8668, 64th Cong., 1st sess., 1916, pp. 55-56.

46. Congressman John E. Raker, of California, and Congressman William Kent, also of the Golden State, supported the legislation in the House. For a lively interpretation of the bill and the significance of its passage, see Donald C. Swain, "The Passage of the National Park Service Act of 1916," Wisconsin Magazine of History 50 (Autumn 1966): 4-17.

47. Both Mather and Albright have been treated in superb biographies; they are Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), and Donald C. Swain, Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). A brief synthesis of Mather's career may also be found in Douglas H. Strong, The Conservationists (Menlo Park, Calif.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1971), pp. 117-38. The famous letter from Lane is quoted in both Shankland and Strong, on pp. 7 and 117, respectively.

48. Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, p. 66.

49. Stephen T. Mather, "The National Parks on a Business Basis," American Review of Reviews 51 (April 1915): 429-30.

50. U.S., Statutes at Large, 39 (1916): 535.

51. Ibid. Olmsted's role in guiding the preparation of this paragraph is exhaustively credited in the correspondence of the J. Horace McFarland collection.

52. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Proceedings of the National Parks Conference, January 2-6, 1917 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1917), p. 20.

1. Mary Roberts Rinehart, "The Sleeping Giant," Ladies' Home Journal 38 (May 1921): 21.

2. Ibid.

3. Joseph Grinnell and Tracy Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," Science 44 (September 15, 1916): 377.

4. Rinehart, "The Sleeping Giant," p. 21.

5. Preservationists eventually succeeded in thwarting the projects; interested historians will wish to consult the J. Horace McFarland Papers, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Division of Archives and Manuscripts, Harrisburg, for numerous materials relating to the campaign. Relevant contemporary articles include Stephen T. Mather, "Do You Want to Lose Your Parks?" Independent 104 (November 13, 1920): 220-21, 238-39; Frank A. Waugh, "The Market Price on Landscape," Outlook 127 (March 16, 1921): 428-29; and William C. Gregg, "The Cascade Corner of Yellowstone Park," Outlook 129 (November 23, 1921): 469-76.

6. U.S., Statutes at Large, 17 (1872): 33.

7. See John F. Reiger, American Sportsmen and the Origins of Conservation (New York: Winchester Press, 1975), pp. 97-113, 125-41.

8. The Glacier park debates of 1910 were among the first to deal with wildlife protection as a primary justification for national parks. Senator Thomas H. Carter of Montana, for example, sparked brief discussion with a reminder that the proposed reserve would save the mountain sheep as well as unique scenery. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 61st Cong., 2d sess., January 25, 1910, p. 960.

9. Robert Sterling Yard, National Parks Portfolio (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916), pp. 3-6.

10. Robert Sterling Yard, "The People and the National Parks," The Survey 48 (August 1, 1922): 547; Rinehart, "The Sleeping Giant," p. 21; Grinnell and Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," p. 377. The emerging role of wildlife conservation in the national parks may also be traced in Charles C. Adams, "The Relation of Wild Life to Recreation in Forests and Parks," Playground 18 (July 1924): 208-9; John C. Merriam, "Scientific, Economic, and Recreational Values of Wild Life," Playground 18 (July 1924): 203-4; and Horace M. Albright, "Our National Parks as Wildlife Sanctuaries, American Forests and Forest Life 35 (August 1929): 505-7, 536.

11. Robert Sterling Yard, "Economic Aspects of Our National Parks Policy," Scientific Monthly 16 (April 1923): 384-85.

12. U.S., Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, June 30, 1920 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1920), p. 66; C. Edward Graves, "The Yosemite School," School and Society 32 (November 1, 1930): 592; Stephen T. Mather, "National Parks are Field Laboratories for the Study of Nature," School Life 12 (November 1926): 41. Mather consistently returned to the theme in his annual reports to the secretary of the interior. Other publications of interest on the development of outdoor education in the national parks include: Isabelle F. Story, "National Parks Afford Education by Unconscious Absorption," School Life 14 (February 1929): 104-6; Harold C. Bryant, "Nature Lore for Park Visitors," American Forests and Forest Life 35 (August 1929): 501-4, 540; and Horace M. Albright, "Says the NPS to the NEA," School Life 16 (May 1931): 165-66. A more recent analysis is C. Frank Brockman, "Park Naturalists and the Evolution of National Park Service Interpretation through World War II," Journal of Forest History 22 (January 1978): 24-43.

13. John Burroughs, "The Grand Canyon of the Colorado," Century 81 (January 1911): 425, 428.

14. The establishment of Zion and Bryce Canyon national parks is described in John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), pp. 241-48; and Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), pp. 136-39.

15. Rufus Steele, "The Celestial Circuit," Sunset Magazine 56 (May 1926): 24-25; Nature Magazine 13 (June 1929): endpiece; Nature Magazine 13 (April 1929): 277; and Nature Magazine 13 (May 1929): 353. Similar Union Pacific advertisements appeared throughout the 1920s in National Geographic and Sunset Magazine. Additional examples of monumental perceptions of the Southwest include: Paul C. Phillips, "The Trail of the Painted Parks," Country Life 55 (April 1929): 65-66; Charles G. Plummer, "Utah's Zion National Park," Overland Monthly 81 (June 1923): 27-28; Stephen T. Mather, "The New Bryce Canyon National Park," American Forests and Forest Life 35 (January 1929): 37-38; and Santa Fe Railroad, Passenger Department, The Grand Canyon of Arizona (Chicago: Santa Fe Railroad, 1902), passim.

16. U.S., Statutes at Large, 39 (1916): 432-34; U.S., Statutes at Large, 39 (1917): 938-39. Lassen has its biographer in Douglas H. Strong, "These Happy Grounds": A History of the Lassen Region (Red Bluff, Calif.: Walker Lithograph Co., 1973).

17. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 238-41, 251; U.S., Statutes at Large, 40 (1919): 1178-79.

18. Copy, H. W. Temple et al. to Hubert Work, December 12, 1924, McFarland Papers, Box 18.

19. Isabelle F. Story, "The Park of the Smoking Mountains," Home Geographic Monthly 2 (August 1932): 45; Robert Sterling Yard, "Great Smokies: Mountain Throne of the East," American Forests 39 (January 1933): 32.

20. William C. Gregg, "Two New National Parks?" Outlook 141 (December 30, 1925): 667; U.S., Department of the Interior, Report of the Director of the National Park Service, June 30, 1925 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1925), p. 3.

21. U.S., Statutes at Large, 44 (1926): 616-17. With the establishment of national parks from private instead of public property, it becomes necessary to distinguish between their date of authorization and actual dedication. Usually the interval was at least a decade.

22. Shenandoah National Park awaits a definitive history. Portions of the park campaign, however, are chronicled in Darwin Lambert, The Earth-Man Story (New York: Exposition Press, 1972), chapter 5; and Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 248-58, 262-64. A participant in the Great Smokies crusade, Carlos C. Campbell, has left a detailed account in Birth of a National Park (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1969). A sampling of other appropriate publications would include: Plummer F. Jones, "The Shenandoah National Park in Virginia," American Review of Reviews 72 (July 1925): 63-70; Laura Thornborough, "A New National Park in the East: The Great Smokies American Forests and Forest Life 36 (March 1930): 137-40, 190; and Charles Peter Rarich, "Development of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park," Appalachia 21 (December 1936): 199-210.

23. Yard, "The People and the National Parks," p. 550.

24. A definitive geological history of the region is J. D. Love and John C. Reed, Jr., Creation of the Teton Landscape (Moose, Wyo.: Grand Teton Natural History Association, 1971). Also of value is F. M. Fryxell, The Tetons: Interpretations of a Mountain Landscape (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1938). The Tetons, French for "breasts," were named by voyageurs around 1810. See the recent history by David J. Saylor, Jackson Hole, Wyoming: In the Shadow of the Grand Tetons (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), p. 54.

25. To the mountain men who first penetrated the region, the term "hole" defined a valley encircled by peaks. "Jackson Hole" derived from David E. Jackson, a trapper of the 1820s. Saylor, Jackson Hole, Wyoming, pp. 60-63.

26. The process is described in ibid., pp. 117-23.

27. Dillon Wallace, "Saddle and Camp Life in the Rockies: The Tragedy of the Elk," Outing 58 (March 1911): 187-201; Saylor, Jackson Hole, Wyoming, pp. 159-63.

28. U.S., Congress, Senate, Region South of and Adjoining Yellowstone National Park, Sen. Doc. 39, 55th Cong., 3d sess., 1898, pp. 4-32.

29. Saylor, Jackson Hole, Wyoming, p. 161.

30. As quoted in U.S., Congress, Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on Public Lands and Surveys, Enlarging Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming, Hearings on Sen. Res. 250, 75th Cong., 3d sess., August 8-10, 1938, p. 6. Hereafter cited as Sen. Res. 250, Hearings.

31. U.S., Department of the Interior, Report(s) of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior, June 30, 1918 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1918), p. 40; and June 30, 1919 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1919), p. 48.

32. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 65th Cong., 3d sess., February 18, 1919, p. 3646. The measure had passed the House the previous day.

33. The Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives, Washington, D.C., File 602, Yellowstone National Park Boundaries, Box 460, detail the care taken by Stephen Mather and Horace Albright to assure the citizens of Jackson Hole that no valuable land would be included in the project. It was with this assurance that the bill was sponsored in Congress by Representative Frank Mondell of Wyoming.

34. Sen. Res. 250, Hearings, p. 7.

35. See, for example, Mather to George Bird Grinnell, December 11, 1919, Yellowstone Park Boundaries, R. G. 79, Box 460.

36. S. Res. 250, Hearings, p. 7.

37. Albright to Mather, October 16, 1919, Yellowstone Park Boundaries, R. G. 79, Box 460.

38. U.S., Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, June 30, 1920 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1920), p. 104.

39. Ibid., p. 112.

40. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 69th Cong., 1st sess., May 26, 1926, p. 10143; U.S., Statutes at Large, 44 (1926): 820.

41. S. Res. 250, Hearings, pp. 9-10; Struthers Burt, "The Battle of Jackson's Hole," The Nation 122 (March 3, 1926): 226.

42. S. Res. 250, Hearings, pp. 10-11.

43. Ibid., pp. 13-14. Donald C. Swain provides an additional perspective on the Jackson Hole controversy in Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), passim. Swain, however, as does David J. Saylor, Jackson Hole, Wyoming, pp. 149-204, concentrates on the events of the campaign itself rather than the relationship of the controversy to the national park idea as a whole. A similar perspective pervades another recent study, Robert W. Righter, "The Brief, Hectic Life of Jackson Hole National Monument," American West 13 (November-December 1976): 30-33, 57-62.

44. U.S., Congress, Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on Public Lands and Surveys, Investigation of Proposed Enlargement of the Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, Hearings on S. Res. 226, 73d Cong., 2d sess., August 7-10, 1933, pp. 49-80.

45. S. Res. 250, Hearings, p. 15.

46. Fritiof M. Fryxell, "The Grand Tetons: Our National Park of Matterhorns, "American Forests and Forest Life 35 (August 1929): 455.

47. The characteristics of the reserve are detailed in Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 338-40.

48. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 70th Cong., 2d sess., February 7,1929, pp. 2982-83; U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 70th Cong., 2d sess., February 18, 1929, p. 3699; U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 70th Cong., 2d sess., February 20, 1929, p. 3810; U.S., Statutes at Large, 45 (1929): 1314-16.

49. Struthers Burt, "The Jackson Hole Plan," Outdoor America (November-December 1944), reprint, J. Horace McFarland Papers, Box 22.

50. Popular histories of the region include Marjory Stoneman Douglas, The Everglades: River of Grass (New York: Rinehart and Co., 1947), and Charlton W. Tebeau, Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park (Miami: University of Miami Press and Everglades Natural History Association, 1968). Patricia Caulfield, Everglades (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1970), is a readable study by an environmental activist, while Luther J. Carter provides a detailed, scholarly treatment of the ecology of the Everglades in The Florida Experience: Land and Water Policy in a Growth State (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and Resources for the Future, 1974), pp. 86-88.

51. U.S., Statutes at Large, 46 (1931): 1514; Albert Stoll, Jr., "Isle Royale: An Unspoiled and Little Known Wonderland of the North," American Forests and Forest Life 32 (August 1926): 457-59,512; Arthur Newton Pack, "Isle Royale National Park," Nature Magazine 26 (September 1935): 176-77; Ben East, "Park to the North," American Forests 47 (June 1941): 274-76, 300-301.

52. William J. Schneider, "Water and the Everglades," Natural History 75 (November 1966): 32-40.

53. Ibid., pp. 32-33.

54. Tebeau, Man in the Everglades, pp. 169-70; Caulfield, Everglades, pp. 43-44.

55. Caulfield, Everglades, pp. 48-49; Schneider, "Water and the Everglades," pp. 32-36; Carter, The Florida Experience, pp. 83-84.

56. Van Name to Ernest F. Coe, October 6, 1932, Proposed Everglades National Park, History and Legislation, R. G. 79, File 101; Grosvenor to David Fairchild, January 24,1929, Proposed Everglades National Park, History, R. G. 79, File 101.

57. Fairchild to National Park Service, January 21, 1929, Proposed Everglades National Park, History, R. G. 79, File 101.

58. Hornaday to John K. Small, December 30, 1932, Proposed Everglades National Park, Legislation, R. G. 79, File 120.

59. Albright to Ray Lyman Wilbur, May 10, 1930, Proposed Everglades National Park, Inspections and Investigations, R. G. 79, File 204-020.

60. Ibid.

61. In 1931, for example, Yard wrote to the secretary of the interior: "This is a promoter's proposition. It has scarcely been touched by competent specialists. ... What's the hurry? Nobody wants the Everglades." Yard to Ray Lyman Wilbur, January 7, 1931, Proposed Everglades National Park, History, R. G. 79, File 101.

62. Yard publicly opposed the inclusion of Jackson Hole in Grand Teton National Park in "Jackson Hole National Monument Borrows Its Grandeur From Surrounding Mountains," Living Wilderness 8 (October 1943): 3-13.

63. Frederick Law Olmsted and William P. Wharton, "The Florida Everglades," American Forests 38 (March 1932): 143,147. The investigation was presented to Congress by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher of Florida as: U.S., Congress, Senate, The Proposed Everglades National Park, S. Doc. 54, 72d Cong., 1st sess., January 22, 1932.

64. Olmsted and Wharton, "The Florida Everglades," pp. 145-46, 192.

65. National Park Service Memorandum, Arno B. Cammerer, April 2, 1934; and Ickes to Louis B. DeRouen, April 9, 1934, Proposed Everglades National Park, Legislation, R. G. 79, File 120.

66. Ernest F. Coe, "America's Tropical Frontier: A Park," Landscape Architecture 27 (October 1936): 6-10. Coe was not above injecting a touch of cultural nationalism into the campaign, however. In 1929, for example, he proclaimed the Everglades "a veritable natural Venice." See Coe, "The Land of the Fountain of Youth," American Forests and Forest Life 35 (March 1929): 159.

67. U.S., Statutes at Large, 48 (1934): 817; Coe, "America's Tropical Frontier," pp. 6-7; Small to William T. Hornaday, February 28, 1933, Proposed Everglades National Park, Legislation, R. G. 79, File 120.

68. U.S., Statutes at Large, 50 (1937): 670. The state of North Carolina, of course, was charged with the acquisition of the property. Accordingly, the reserve was not formally dedicated until 1953.

69. Other major seashores and their dates of authorization are: Cape Cod, Massachusetts (1961); Padre Island, Texas (1962); Point Reyes, California (1962); Fire Island, New York (1964); Assateague Island, Maryland-Virginia (1965); Cape Lookout, North Carolina (1966); Gulf Islands, Florida and Mississippi (1971); Cumberland Island, Georgia (1972); and Cape Canaveral, Florida (1975). With Cape Cod the federal government broke with its almost universal requirement that the majority of parklands outside the public domain be donated to the United States.

70. Although management of the nation's historic properties by the National Park Service is outside the scope of this volume, their takeover from other federal agencies in 1933 might later be interpreted as further evidence of the emerging ideal of total preservation. See Horace M. Albright, Origins of the National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites (Philadelphia: Eastern National Park and Monument Association, 1971), for the events leading to the transfer.

1. Brief descriptions of their careers may be found in John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), pp. 593-96; Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite (Yosemite National Park: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1968), pp. 134-36, 143; and Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), pp. 274-75, 314, 331.

2. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States: A Preliminary Survey of Faunal Relations in National Parks, by George M. Wright, Joseph S. Dixon, and Ben H. Thompson (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), pp. 37-39.

3. Ibid. Further studies appeared as U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States: Wildlife Management in the National Parks, by George M. Wright and Ben H. Thompson (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935). Partly in anticipation of the findings of both reports, in 1931 the National Park Service reevaluated its long-standing predator-control program. In noting its endurance the scientists concluded: "There is sometimes a tendency in men in the field to hold any predator in the same disreputable position as any human criminal. It seems well to comment that no moral status should be attached to any animal. It is just as natural (just as much a part of nature) for [predators] to prey upon other animal life as it is for trees to grow from the soil, and nobody questions the morality of the latter." Wright et al., Fauna of the National Parks: A Preliminary Survey, p. 48.

4. The components of the park are discussed in Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 379-82.

5. John B. Yeon, "The Issue of the Olympics," American Forests 42 (June 1936): 255. For the opposing point of view see Asahel Curtis, "The Proposed Mount Olympus National Park," American Forests 42 (April 1936): 166-69, 195-96.

6. U.S., Statutes at Large, 52 (1938): 1241-42. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used his authority to further expand the park in 1940. For a complete legislative history see Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 382-95. An excellent history of both the region and the park campaign is Ruby El Hult, Untamed Olympics: The Story of a Peninsula (Portland, Ore.: Binforde and Mort, 1954). A more recent article-length study by a professional historian is Elmo R. Richardson, "Olympic National Park: Twenty Years of Controversy," Forest History 12 (April 1968): 6-15.

7. Numerous contemporary articles document the controversy; among the more relevant are Herb Crisler, "Our Olympic National Park—Let's Keep All of It," Nature Magazine 40 (November 1947): 457-60, 496; Fred H. McNeil, "The Olympic Park Problem," Mazama 29 (December 1947): 42-46; Herb Crisler, "Our Heritage—Wilderness or Sawdust?" Appalachia 27 (December 1948): 171-77; Weldon F. Heald, "Shall We Auction Olympic National Park?" Natural History 63 (September 1954): 311-20, 336; E. T. Clark and Irving Clark, Jr., "Is Olympic National Park Too Big?" American Forests 60 (September 1954): 30-31, 89, 98; editorial, "Olympic Park Viewpoints," Nature Magazine 49 (August-September 1956): 369-70, 374; and Anthony Wayne Smith, "Hands Off Olympic Park!" National Parks Magazine 40 (November 1966): 2.

8. John Muir, "A Rival of Yosemite: The Canyon of the South Fork of the Kings River," Century Magazine 43 (November 1891): 77-97; Ben H. Thompson, "The Proposed Kings Canyon National Park" Bird-Lore 37 (July-August 1935): 239-44; U.S., Statutes at Large, 54 (1940): 44.

9. Approximately 47,000 acres of private land, however, soon were added to Olympic National Park through purchase of the Queets River corridor and a strip along the Pacific coast. Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 390.

10. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, To Abolish the Jackson Hole National Monument, Wyoming, Hearings on H. R. 2241, 78th Cong., 1st sess., May-June 1943, p. 81; Donald C. Swain, Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 262-64.

11. H. R. 2241, Hearings, pp. 17-18, 68.

12. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 2d sess., December 11, 1944, pp. 9183-96; U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 2d sess., December 19, 1944, pp. 9769, 9807-08.

13. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 506-8; U.S., Statutes at Large, 64 (1950): 849.

14. U.S., Statutes at Large, 64 (1950); 849; Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 508. As early as 1933, for example, George M. Wright, Joseph S. Dixon, and Ben H. Thompson opposed recreational hunting as a means of reducing overpopulated wildlife species. "Shooting for sport is unsatisfactory," they noted, "because it is selective of the finest specimens instead of the poor ones which, by rights, should be removed first." Wright et al., Fauna of the National Parks: A Preliminary Survey, p. 35.

15. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 73d Cong., 2d sess., May 24, 1934, p. 9497; U.S., Statutes at Large, 48 (1934): 817.

16. U.S., Statutes at Large, 48 (1934): 816; William J. Schneider, "Water and the Everglades," Natural History 75 (November 1966): 35; Patricia Caulfield, Everglades (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1970), p. 53.

17. Luther J. Carter provides a comprehensive listing and interpretation of the multitude of recent studies of the south Florida ecosystem in The Florida Experience: Land and Water Policy in a Growth State (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and Resources for the Future, 1974). Especially see chapters 7 and 8.

18. Peter Farb, "Disaster Threatens the Everglades," Audubon 67 (September 1965): 303. Also of relevance are Verne O. Williams, "Man-Made Drought Threatens Everglades National Park," Audubon 65 (September 1963): 290-94; and Joan Browder, "Don't Pull the Plug on the Everglades," American Forests 73 (September 1967): 12-15, 53-55.

19. Schneider, "Water and the Everglades," p. 39.

20. Wallace Stegner, "Last Chance for the Everglades," Saturday Review 50 (May 6, 1967): 23, 73.

21. The coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is also generally younger than the Sierra species (Sequoia gigantea). Among the recent scientific analyses of its characteristics are Edward C. Stone and Richard B. Vasey, "Preservation of Coast Redwood on Alluvial Flats," Science 159 (January 12, 1968): 157-60; Samuel T. Dana and Kenneth B. Pomeroy, "Redwoods and Parks," American Forests 71 (May 1965): 1-32; and Emanuel Fritz, "A Redwood Forester's View," Journal of Forestry (May 1967): 312-19.

22. Dana and Pomeroy, "Redwoods and Parks," p. 5. The Sierra redwoods, moreover, had state-park recognition as early as 1864.

23. Charles Mulford Robinson, "Muir Woods—A National Park," Survey 20 (May 2, 1908): 181-83. An interesting footnote to the careers of Muir and Kent is Roderick Nash, "John Muir, William Kent and the Conservation Schism," Pacific Historical Review 34 (November 1967): 423-33.

24. Dana and Pomeroy, "Redwoods and Parks," pp. 9-10. Including cutover lands and second growth, redwood land in the state parks was almost 103,000 acres.

25. Promotional circular, Save-the-Redwoods League, 1967; Stone and Vasey, "Preservation of Coast Redwood on Alluvial Flats," p. 157.

26. As quoted in Dana and Pomeroy, "Redwoods and Parks," p. 11.

27. Russell D. Butcher, "Redwoods and the Fragile Web of Nature, Audubon 66 (May-June 1964): 174.

28. The discrepancy was in large part based on the size of both projects, approximately 43,000 acres for Mill Creek as opposed to 90,000 for Redwood Creek.

29. The particulars of the various proposals are argued exhaustively by their sponsors in House and Senate hearings. See, for example, U.S., Congress, House, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Redwood National Park (3 parts), Hearings on H. R. 1311 and Related Bills, June-July 1967, May 1968, passim.

30. Promotional circular, Sierra Club, 1967.

31. H. R. 1311, Hearings, pp. 439-509, passim.

32. The relationship of these provisions to the failure to establish Redwood National Park as a self-contained ecosystem is detailed in John Graves, "Redwood National Park: Controversy and Compromise," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (October 1974): 14-19.

33. Ibid.

34. Promotional circular, Sierra Club, undated.

35. Paul A. Zahl, "Finding the Mt. Everest of All Living Things," National Geographic 126 (July 1964): 10-51.

36. "Logging Practices Still Ravaging State's Forests," Los Angeles Times, August 24, 1975, Pt: 2, p. 1; "Curb on Logging of Redwoods Rejected," Los Angeles Times, September 13, 1975, Pt: 2, p. 1; "Redwood Grove Periled: State Moves to Save World's Tallest Tree," Los Angeles Times, August 29, 1975, pt. 1, p. 3; "State Asks Expansion of U.S. Redwood Park," Los Angeles Times, September 19, 1976, pt. 1, p. 3.

37. A. Starker Leopold et al., "Wildlife Management in the National Parks," National Parks Magazine 37 (April 1963): iii; F. Fraser Darling and Noel D. Eichhorn, "Man and Nature in the National Parks: Reflections on Policy," National Parks Magazine 43 (April 1969): 14, 17. Darling, an ecologist, and Eichhorn, a geographer, were sponsored by the Conservation Foundation of Washington, D.C. The Leopold Committee report, originally published by the Interior Department, was widely reprinted in most of the major conservation journals.

1. Edward H. Hamilton, "The New Yosemite Railroad," Cosmopolitan 43 (September 1907): 569-70. Another contemporary opinion is Lanier Bartlett, "By Rail to the Yosemite," Pacific Monthly 17 (June 1907): 730-38. Two recent studies are Hank Johnston, Railroads of the Yosemite Valley (Long Beach, Calif.: Johnston and Howe, 1964), and Alfred Runte, "Yosemite Valley Railroad: Highway of History, Pathway of Promise," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (December 1974): 4-9.

2. U.S., National Archives, Natural Resources Division, Record Group 79, Yosemite National Park, "Travel," Pt. 1, Box 727. An entertaining departure on the admission of automobiles into Yosemite Valley is Richard Lillard, "The Siege and Conquest of a National Park," American West 5 (January 1968): 28-31, 67, 69-71.

3. Charles J. Belden, "The Motor in Yellowstone," Scribner's Magazine 63 (June 1918): 673; Enos A. Mills, "Touring in Our National Parks," Country Life in America 23 (January 1913): 36. Mills often is considered the "father of Rocky Mountain National Park," whose establishment he strongly supported for many years.

4. Arthur Newton Pack, "Hunting Nature on Wheels," Nature Magazine 13 (June 1929): 388; Robert Sloss, "Camping in an Automobile," Outing 56 (May 1910): 236.

5. H.P. Burchell, "The Automobile as a Means of Country Travel," Outing 46 (August 1905): 536; Frank E. Brimmer, "Autocamping—the Fastest Growing Sport," Outlook 137 (July 16, 1924): 439; Gilbert Irwin, "Nature Ways by Car and Camp," Nature Magazine 10 (July 1927): 27.

6. Anonymous, "Neighbors for a Night in Yellowstone Park" Literary Digest 82 (August 30, 1924): 45.

7. Ethel and James Dorrance, "Motoring in the Yellowstone," Munsey's Magazine 70 (July 1920): 268-70. A sampling of other relevant articles detailing the rise of pleasure motoring in the national parks would include: W. A. Babson, "Motor in the Wilderness," Country Life in America 8 (June 1905): 247-48; Hrolf Wisby, "Camping Out with an Automobile," Outing 45 (March 1905): 739-45; Samuel M. Evans, "Forty Gallons of Gasoline to Forty Miles of Water: Recipe for a Motor Trip to Crater Lake, Oregon," Sunset Magazine: The Pacific Monthly 27 (October 1911): 393-99; Arthur E. Demaray, "Our National Parks and How to Reach Them," American Forestry 27 (June 1921): 360-70; Ronne C. Shelse, "The Pageant Highway: A 6,000-Mile Ride from Park to Park," Mentor World Traveler 12 (July 1924): 29-45; Hazel R. Langdale, "To the Yellowstone," Woman's Home Companion 56 (May 1929): 120-21; and Anonymous, "Seeing the Western National Parks by Motor," American Forests and Forest Life 35 (August 1929): 508-9

8. The implications of the statistic for rail-passenger service are noted in George W. Long, Many-Splendored Glacierland," National Geographic Magazine 160 (May 1956): 589-90.

9. James Bryce, "National Parks—The Need of the Future," Outlook 102 (December 14, 1912): 811-13.

10. Lorimer to McFarland, November 12, 1934, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Division of Archives and Manuscripts, McFarland Papers, Box 18.

11. McFarland to Lorimer, November 13, 1934, McFarland Papers, Box 18.

12. U.S., Statutes at Large, 39 (1916): 535.

13. Robert Sterling Yard, "Economic Aspects of Our National Parks Policy," Scientific Monthly 16 (April 1923): 381.

14. Frederick Law Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," ed. Laura Wood Roper, Landscape Architecture 43 (October 1952): 17, 22.

15. The advantages and disadvantages of this policy are discussed at length in John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961). See especially pp. 606-18.

16. Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," pp. 22-24.

17. For conditions in the valley see Shirley Sargent, Galen Clark: Yosemite Guardian (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1964), p. 124.

18. Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," p. 16.

19. Grace Greenwood, New Life in New Lands (New York: J. B. Ford and Co., 1873), pp. 358-60. Grace Greenwood was the pen name of Mrs. Sara Jane Clarke Lippincot (1823-1904), one of the more renowned women correspondents of the period.

20. As quoted in Carl P. Russell, One Hundred Years in Yosemite (Yosemite National Park: Yosemite Natural History Association, 1968), pp. 108-109.

21. Ibid., p. 109.

22. Laurence V. Degnan to Douglas H. Hubbard, January 24, 1959, U.S., National Park Service, Yosemite National Park Library Papers, Firefall Collection, Y-22.

23. E. P. Leavitt to Agnes L. Scott, September 20, 1928, Yosemite National Park Library Papers, Firefall Collection, Y-22; G. B. MacKenzie, "The Flaming Wonder of the Sierras," Travel 45 (June 1925): 15, 44; Anonymous, "Let the Fire Fall!" Collier's 130 (August 16, 1952): 66.

24. Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," p. 17.

25. W. G. Marshall, Through America; or, Nine Months in the United States (London: H. G. Bohn, 1881), pp. 340-41; Frank Strauser to Ansel F. Hall, July 27, 1925, Yosemite National Park Library Papers, Y-21a.

26. Allen Kelley, "Restoration of Yosemite Waterfalls," Harper's Weekly 36 (July 16, 1892): 678. A similar plea is Hiram Martin Chittenden, "Sentiment versus Utility in the Treatment of Natural Scenery," Pacific Monthly 23 (January 1910): 29-38. Chitenden further included Hetch Hetchy and Niagara Falls as scenic wonders whose beauty could be both preserved and developed. Two additional schemes also afoot were an elaborate cable-car system in the Grand Canyon and an elevator beside the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River in Yellowstone National Park. Although neither was successful, both were seriously considered. See U.S., Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, Granting Right of Way Over Certain Sections of the Grand Canyon National Monument Reserve in Arizona to the Grand Canyon Scenic Railroad Company, Hearings on H. R. 2258, 61st Cong., 2d sess., 1910; and U.S., Congress, Senate, David B. May, S. Doc. 151, 54th Cong., 2d sess., 1897.

27. Victor H. Cahalane, "Your National Parks—and You," Nature Magazine 33 (May 1940): 264-65.

28. Ibid., p. 264.

29. Martelle W. Trager, National Parks of the Northwest (New York: Dodd and Mead, 1939), pp. 31-33,45-48. The bear feedings originally became popular in conjunction with construction of the grand hotels, such as the Old Faithful Inn. Thomas D. Murphy, for example, a British globe-trotter and writer of the period, described the shows and their distracting influence as early as 1909. See his Three Wonderlands of the American West (Boston: L. C. Page and Co., 1912), pp. 15-16.

30. Henry Baldwin Ward, "What Is Happening to Our National Parks?" Nature Magazine 31 (December 1938): 614; Albert W. Atwood, "Can the National Parks be Kept Unspoiled?" Saturday Evening Post 208 (May 16, 1936): 18-19.

31. Robert Sterling Yard, "The People and the National Parks," Survey 48 (August 1, 1922): 552; idem, "Economic Aspects of Our National Parks Policy," p. 387; Wallace W. Atwood, "What Are National Parks?" American Forests 37 (September 1931): 543.

32. Arno B. Cammerer, "Maintenance of the Primeval in National Parks," Appalachia 22 (December 1938): 207.

33. Robert Sterling Yard, "Historical Basis of National Park Standards," National Parks Bulletin 10 (November 1929): 4.

34. U.S., Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1960), p. 222.

35. "U.S. Is Outgrowing Its Parks," U.S. News and World Report 38 (June 10, 1955): 79; Runte, "Yosemite Valley Railroad," p. 7.

36. Joseph Wood Krutch, "Which Men? What Needs?" American Forests 63 (April 1957): 23, 46; "U.S. Is Outgrowing Its Parks," p. 78.

37. John Muir, "The Wild Parks and Forest Reservations of the West, Atlantic Monthly 81 (January 1898): 16; Bernard DeVoto, "The National Parks," Fortune 35 (June 1947): 120-21; Krutch, "Which Men? What Needs?", pp. 22-23. Bernard DeVoto, an indefatigable friend of the national parks, has his biographer in Wallace Stegner, The Uneasy Chair: A Biography of Bernard DeVoto (New York: Double day, 1974). See pp. 301-22 for DeVoto's efforts on behalf of national park integrity. Another of his outspoken comments is "Let's Close the National Parks," Harper's Magazine 207 (October 1953): 49-52.

38. Devereux Butcher, "Resorts or Wilderness?" Atlantic 207 (February 1961): 47, 51; F. Fraser Darling and Noel D. Eichhorn, "Man and Nature in the National Parks: Reflections on Policy," National Parks Magazine 43 (April 1969): 17.

39. U.S., Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1974, 95th ed. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974), p. 204.

40. Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968), pp. 57-61.

41. Garrett Hardin, "The Economics of Wilderness," Natural History 78 (June-July 1969): 20-27.

42. Krutch, "Which Men? What Needs?," p. 23.

43. Cammerer, "Maintenance of the Primeval in National Parks," pp. 210-11; Krutch, "Which Men? What Needs?," p. 23.

44. Eric Julber, "Let's Open Up Our Wilderness Areas, Reader's Digest 100 (May 1972): 126; idem, "The Wilderness: Just How Wild Should It Be?" reprinted in cooperation with the Western Wood Products Laboratory (undated), p. 1.

45. Butcher, "Resorts or Wilderness?," p. 50.

46. Ibid. Similar contemporary arguments include Paul Brooks, "The Pressure of Numbers," Atlantic 207 (February 1961): 54-56; Benton MacKaye, "If This Be Snobbery," Living Wilderness 77 (Summer 1961): 3-4; and Jerome B. Wood, "National Parks: Tomorrow's Slums?" Travel 101 (April 1954): 14-16.

47. Jack Hope, "Hassles in the Park," Natural History 80 (May 1971): 22-23; "Yosemite: Better Way to Run a Park?" U.S. News and World Report 72 (January 24, 1972): 56.

48. George B. Hartzog, Jr., "Changing the National Parks to Cope with People—and Cars, U.S. News and World Report 72 (January 24, 1972): 52.

49. Jack Anderson, "Yosemite: Another Disneyland?" Washington Post, September 15, 1974, reprint; Philip Fradkin, "Sierra Club Sees Damage in Yosemite Filming," Los Angeles Times, August 28, 1974, Pt. 1, pp. 1,22; "Yosemite National Convention Center Proposed by New Concessionaire," Sierra Club Bulletin 59 (September 1974): 29.

50. Julber, "The Wilderness: Just How Wild Should It Be?," p. 5.

51. Krutch, "Which Men? What Needs?," p. 23.

52. "America's 'Magnificent Seven,'" U.S. News and World Report 78 (April 21, 1975): 56-57. In order, the outstanding natural attractions of the United States included: The Grand Canyon, Yellowstone, Niagara Falls, Mount McKinley, California's "big trees"—the sequoias and redwoods—the Hawaii volcanoes, and the Everglades. Some correlation, quite obviously, exists between both the tourist and resident populations of the states containing each wonder, as well as the greater publicity accorded areas such as Yellowstone.

53. A superb example of the belief that the flow of Niagara Falls can be reduced even further without destroying its scenic integrity, as well as a good overview of the diversion issue, is B. F. Friesen and J. C. Day, "Hydroelectric Power and Scenic Provisions of the 1950 Niagara Treaty," Water Resources Bulletin 13 (December 1977): 1175-89.

1. As quoted in U.S., National Parks Centennial Commission, Preserving a Heritage (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), pp. 79-80.

2. A listing of major publicity efforts covering the centennial may be found in ibid., pp. 52-61.

3. The Conservation Foundation, National Parks for the Future (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1972), p. 31. For a discussion of the national park idea abroad, see Roderick Nash, Nature in World Development: Patterns in the Preservation of Scenic and Outdoor Recreation Resources (New York: The Rockefeller Foundation, 1978), and Jeremy Harrison, et al., "The World Coverage of Protected Areas: Development Goals and Environmental Needs," Ambio, vol. 11, no. 5 (1982): 238-45. Also pertinent, but now dated, is John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), chapter 31.

4. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York: Fawcet Crest, [1962] 1964), pp. 24, 169.

5. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, First World Conference on National Parks, Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962), pp.433-47.

6. Ibid., p. xxxi.

7. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, et al., Second World Conference on National Parks, Proceedings (Morges, Switzerland: International Union, U.S. National Parks Centennial Commission, 1974), p. 38; Paul R. Ehrlich, The Population Bomb, rev. ed. (New York: Sierra Club/Ballantine Books, 1971), p. xi.

8. Conservation Foundation, National Parks for the Future, p. 9.

9. International Union, Second World Conference, Proceedings, p. 15.

10. See, for example, Norman Myers, "National Parks in Savannah Africa," Science 178 (December 22, 1972): 1255-63; Meyers, "Wildlife Parks in Emergent Africa: The Outlook for Their Survival," Chicago Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 45 (February 1974): 8-14; and David Western, "Amboseli National Park: Enlisting Landowners to Conserve Migratory Wildlife," Ambio, vol. 11, no. 5 (1982): 302-8. The theme that even the largest national parks of Africa are threatened also consistently reappears in the proceedings of the world national parks conferences.

11. See, for example, Paul W. Richards, "National Parks in Wet Tropical Areas," International Union, Second World Conference, Proceedings, pp. 219-27.

12. Ibid., pp. 443-44. Regarding potential threats to Antarctica from recent reassessments of its economic potential, see P H C Lucas, "International Agreement on Conserving the Antarctic Environment," Ambio, vol. 11, no. 5 (1982): 292-95.

13. A detailed overview of the struggles for the Colorado River is Roderick Nash, "Conservation and the Colorado," chapter 9 of T. H. Watkins, et al., The Grand Colorado: The Story of a River and Its Canyons (Palo Alto, Calif.: American West Publishing Co., 1969). Also relevant is Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3d ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), pp. 209-20.

14. Wallace Stegner, ed., This is Dinosaur: Echo Park Country and Its Magic Rivers (New York: Knopf, 1955).

15. See, for example, Eliot Porter, The Place No One Knew: Glen Canyon on the Colorado (San Francisco: Sierra Club Press, 1963).

16. Preservationists' arguments for a "greater" Grand Canyon National Park are summarized in Roderick Nash, ed., Grand Canyon of the Living Colorado (San Francisco and New York: Sierra Club/Ballantine Books, 1970), pp. 106-7.

17. Robert Dolan, et al., "Man's Impact on the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon," American Scientist 62 (July-August 1974): 392-401.

18. Nash, "Conservation and the Colorado," p. 269; Laurence I. Moss, "The Grand Canyon Subsidy Machine," Sierra Club Bulletin 52 (April 1967): 89-94.

19. The issue of air pollution is summarized in Jerome Ostrov, "Visibility Protection under the Clean Air Act: Preserving Scenic and Parkland Areas in the Southwest," Ecology Law Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 3 (1982): 397-453.

20. Philip Fradkin, "Smog from Power Plants Threatens Utah 'Color Country'," Los Angeles Times, February 9, 1975, Pt: 2, p. 1.

21. Los Angeles Times, December 28, 1975, pt. 7, p. 2.

22. As quoted in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 230.

23. The advertisement is reprinted in Wakins, The Grand Colorado, p. 270.

24. U.S., Congress, House, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, To Prohibit Certain Incompatible Activities within Any Area of the National Park System, Hearing on H.R. 9799, 94th Cong., 1st sess., October 6, 1975, p. 5.

25. In addition to Death Valley National Monument the parks included: Glacier Bay National Monument and Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska; Crater Lake National Park, Oregon; Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona; and Coronado National Memorial, Arizona. Ibid., pp. 4-5.

26. Ibid., p. 38.

27. Ibid., pp. 66-68.

28. Ibid., pp. 45, 52, 101-3.

29. Ibid., pp. 103-4.

30. U.S., Statutes at Large, 90 (1976): 1342-44.

31. E. Raymond Hall, "The Prairie National Park," National Parks Magazine 36 (February 1962): 5-8; F. Fraser Darling, "The Park Idea and Ecological Reality," ibid. 43 (May 1969): 21-24.

32. Jetport and the Everglades—Life or Runway?" Living Wilderness 33 (Spring 1969): 13-20; "Jets vs. the Call of the Wild," Business Week (August 30,1969): 76-77; "The Newest Trouble on Everglades Waters," Business Week (June 5, 1971): 45-46.

33. Melvin A. Finn, "Fahkahatchee: Endangered Gem of the Big Cypress Country," Living Wilderness 35 (Autumn 1971): 11-18; George Reiger, "The Choice for Big Cypress: Bulldozers or Butterflies," National Wildlife 10 (October-November 1972): 5-10; Luther J. Carter, The Florida Experience: Land and Water Policy in a Growth State (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and Resources for the Future, 1974), chapter 8; Nelson M. Blake, Land into Water—Water into Land: A History of Water Management in Florida (Tallahassee: University Presses of Florida, 1980), pp. 231-35.

34. Robert Belous, "Hello, Jet Age; Goodbye, Wilderness," Living Wilderness 37 (Spring 1973): 40-49.

35. U.S., Statutes at Large, 88(1974): 1258-61.

36. George H. Harrison and Frank C. Craighead, Jr., "They're Killing Yellowstone's Grizzlies," National Wildlife 11 (October-November 1973): 4-8, 17; Christopher Cauble, "The Great Grizzly Grapple," Natural History 86 (August-September 1977): 74-81.

37. Efforts leading to the expansion of Redwood National Park in 1978 are admirably interpreted in Susan R. Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), pp. 186-244.

38. Conservation Foundation, National Parks for the Future, p. 19; Robert Cahn, "Alaska: A Matter of 80,000,000 Acres," Audubon 76 (July 1974): 2-13, 66-81.

39. With the approach of the Yellowstone Centennial the National Park Service addressed the shortcomings of the system in U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Part Two of the National Park System Plan: Natural History (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972). Predictably, there was little reason for surprise in its overriding conclusion that only the mountain and desert landscapes of the West were adequately represented in the national park system.

1. U.S., Department of the Interior, Advisory Board on Wildlife Management, Wildlife Management in the National Parks, by A. S. Leopold, et al., Report to the Secretary, March 4, 1963. Hereafter cited as Leopold Committee, Report. As testimony to its importance, it was reprinted in its entirety in Living Wilderness, Audubon, National Parks Magazine, and American Forests.

2. Ibid., pp. 1-2.

3. Ibid., p. 4.

4. Ibid., p. 5.

5. See, for example, Joseph Grinnell and Tracy Storer, "Animal Life as an Asset of National Parks," Science 44 (September 15, 1916): 377.

6. Leopold Committee, Report, passim.

7. Ibid., p. 21.

8. Ibid., p. 5.

9. "Leopold Report Appraised," Living Wilderness 83 (Spring 1963): 20-24; Anthony Wayne Smith, "Editorial Comment on the Leopold Report," National Parks Magazine 37 (April 1963): I.

10. An overview of this history is Richard J. Hartesveldt, "Effects of Human Impact upon Sequoia gigantea and Its Environment in the Mariposa Grove, Yosemite National Park, California" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1962).

11. Curtis K. Skinner, "Fire, the Enemy of Our National Parks," American Forests and Forest Life 35 (August 1929): 519-20. Changing American attitudes toward fire are superbly documented in Stephen J. Pyne, Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).

12. Pyne, Fire in America, pp. 100-22.

13. U.S., Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yosemite National Park for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1894, H. Exec. Doc. 1, pt. 5, vol. 3, 53d Cong., 3d sess., 1894, p. 675. Gale further elaborated: "It is a well-known fact that the Indians burned the forests annually." Ibid., p. 676. J. W. Zevely, acting superintendent of Yosemite in 1898, was among those who later endorsed the light burning theory. See U.S., Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yosemite National Park for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1898, H. Doc. 5, 55th Cong., 3d sess., 1898, pp. 1056-57. An influential opponent of proposals to reintroduce fire to the Giant Sequoia groves was Colonel S. B. M. Young, acting superintendent of the park in 1896. See U.S., Department of the Interior, Report of the Acting Superintendent of Yosemite National Park, August 15, 1896, in H. Doc. 5, vol. 3, 54th Cong., 2d sess., 1896, pp. 736-37.

14. A lengthy bibliography of the scientific literature is contained in U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Giant Sequoia Ecology: Fire and Reproduction, by H. Thomas Harvey, et al., Scientific Monograph Series No. 12 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1980), pp. 163-68.

15. H. H. Biswell, "The Big Trees and Fire," National Parks Magazine 35 (April 1961): 13-14.

16. Ibid., p. 14.

17. Quoted in R. J. Hartesveldt and H. T. Harvey, "The Fire Ecology of Sequoia Regeneration," California Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, November 9-10, 1967, Proceedings (Tallahassee: Tall Timbers Research Station, 1968): 65.

18. Ibid., pp. 65-76. The scientific literature grew voluminously throughout the late 1960s and 1970s. Also see, for example, H. H. Biswell, "Forest Fire in Perspective," ibid., pp. 43-63; Bruce M. Kilgore, "Impact of Prescribed Burning on a Sequoia—Mixed Conifer Forest," Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, June 8-9, 1972, Proceedings (Tallahassee: Tall Timbers Research Station, 1973): 345-75; Peter H. Schuft, "A Prescribed Burning Program for Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks," ibid., pp. 377-89; John McLaughlin, "Restoring Fire to the Environment in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks," ibid., pp. 391-95; Bruce M. Kilgore, "Fire Management in the National Parks: An Overview," Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference and Fire and Land Management Symposium, October 8-10, 1974, Proceedings (Tallahassee: Tall Timbers Research Station, 1976): 45-57; John L. Vankat, "Fire and Man in Sequoia National Park," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 (March 1977): 17-27; and Bruce M. Kilgore and Dan Taylor, "Fire History of a Sequoia-Mixed Conifer Forest," Ecology 60 (February 1979): 129-42.

19. Vankat, "Fire and Man in Sequoia," pp. 17, 25; Leopold Committee, Report, p.6.

20. Vankat, "Fire and Man in Sequoia," p. 26; U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Compilation of the Administrative Policies ... of the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), p. 20.

21. The most detailed justification of this perspective is Kilgore, "Impact of Prescribed Burning on a Sequoia—Mixed Conifer Forest," pp. 366-72.

22. In 1974, for instance, a lightning-caused fire burned 3,500 acres in the Tetons, obscuring the mountains periodically from the middle of July until November. In the Park Service's own words, allowing the fire to burn "was quite controversial." U.S., National Park Service, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, "Natural Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment," bound typescript, March 1985; pp. 72-73. The incident is also mentioned in Pyne, Fire in America, p. 304.

23. Pyne, Fire in America, p. 122; McLaughlin, "Restoring Fire to the Environment in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks " p. 394.

24. A survey of the literature addressing management issues in addition to fire ecology includes: Robert Dolan, Bruce P. Hayden, and Gary Soucie, "Environmental Dynamics and Resource Management in the U.S. National Parks," Environmental Management, vol.2, no. 3 (1978): 249-58; Thomas M. Bonnicksen and Edward C. Stone, "Managing Vegetation within U.S. National Parks: A Policy Analysis," Environmental Management 6 (March 1982): 109-22; Robert Dolan and Bruce Hayden, "Adjusting to Nature in Our National Seashores," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 48 (June 1974): 9-14; Robert Dolan, et al., "Man's Impact on the Barrier Islands of North Carolina," American Scientist 61 (March-April 1973): 151-62; and James K. Agee, "Issues and Impacts of Redwood National Park Expansion," Environmental Management 4 (September 1980): 407-23. The Leopold Committee Report itself should be supplemented with the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Advisory Committee to the National Park Service on Research, "Report to the Secretary of the Interior," by William J. Robbins, et al., bound typescript, August 1,1963.

1. Robert Sterling Yard, "Gift-Parks the Coming National Park Danger," National Parks Bulletin 4 (October 9, 1923): 4.

2. See, for example, Robert Sterling Yard, National Parks Portfolio (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916), pp. 3-6.

3. Yard, "Gift-Parks," p. 4.

4. Robert Sterling Yard, "To Double Our National Military Parks System—But Let Us Not Mix Systems," National Parks Bulletin 5 (January 21, 1924): 8.

5. John C. Merriam, "Our National Parks," American Forests and Forest Life 32 (August 1926): 478. The John C. Merriam Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., further develop this perspective through correspondence with the principal leaders of American conservation.

6. For a pathbreaking analysis of these emotions with respect to efforts to protect the California coast redwoods, see Susan R. Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), chapters 3-6.

7. A seminal analysis of the period is Samuel P. Hays, "The Environmental Movement," Journal of Forest History 25 (October 1981): 219-21.

8. Urban concerns are summarized in Peter Marcuse, "Is the National Parks Movement Anti-Urban?" Parks and Recreation 6 (July 1971): 17-21,48.

9. Yard, "Gift-Parks," p. 5.

10. Marcuse, "National Parks Movement," passim.

11. See, for example, "NPCA Interviews Phillip Burton: Meeting the Needs of Tomorrow Today," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 53 (May 1979): 22-26.

12. See U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks and Insular Affairs, Legislative History of the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978, Committee Print No. 11, 95th Cong., 2d sess., December 1978. Hereafter cited as National Parks and Recreation Act, Legislative History.

13. "NPCA Interviews Phillip Burton," p. 22.

14. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), p. 136.

15. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 57th Cong., 2d sess., December 6, 1902, p. 81.

16. U.S., Congress, Senate, Wind Cave National Park, S. Rept. 1944 to accompany S. 6138, 57th Cong., 1st sess., June 17, 1902, pp. 2-3.

17. Ibid.

18. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 57th Cong., 2d sess., January 12, 1903, p. 666.

19. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 139-40.

20. Ibid. Congress approved the official transfer in 193l. See U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 71st Cong., 3d sess., January 14, 1931, pp.2163-65.

21. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 140-42; U.S., Congress, House, Sulphur Springs Reservation to be Known as Platt National Park, H. Rept. 5016 to accompany H. J. Res. 181,59th Cong., 1st sess., June 26, 1906.

22. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Report of the Director for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1921 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921), pp. 32-33. Mather's role in the state parks movement is further treated in Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3d ed. (New York: Knopf, 1970), chapter 14.

23. National Park Service, Report of the Director, 1921, p.60. Mather rationalized that Hot Springs National Park did in fact have some national significance, inasmuch as the park drew "heavily from the South and Southwest."

24. Robert Sterling Yard, "Politics in Our National Parks," American Forests and Forest Life 32 (August 1926): 485.

25. Freeman Tilden, The National Parks (New York: Knopf, 1970), pp. 257-58; Yard, "Gift-Parks," p. 5.

26. Yard, "Politics in Our National Parks," pp. 486, 489.

27. The origins of historic preservation are admirably documented in Charles B. Hosmer, Jr., Preservation Comes of Age: From Williamsburg to the National Trust, 1926-1949, 2 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1981). A contemporary assessment is Carl P. Russell, "The Conservation of Historic Values," National Parks Bulletin 14 (December 1938): 16-19. Also relevant is F. Ross Holland, Jr., "The Park Service as Curator," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: The Environmental Journal 53 (August 1979): 10-15.

28. See Ronald F. Lee, The Origin and Evolution of the National Military Park Idea (Washington, D.C.: Office of Park Historic Preservation, National Park Service, 1973).

29. Horace M. Albright, Origins of National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites (Philadelphia: Eastern National Park and Monument Association, 1971), pp. 17-23.

30. Ibid., p. 24.

31. Ovid Butler, "The New National Park Emergency," American Forests 40 (January 1934): 21.

32. Albright, Park Service Administration of Historic Sites, p. 23.

33. See, for example, "Remarks by Mr. H. S. Graves," in U.S., Department of the Interior, Proceedings of the National Park Conference Held at the Yellowstone National Park, September 11 and 12, 1911 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1912), pp. 66-68; and U.S., Department of the Interior, Proceedings of the National Park Conference Held at Berkeley, California, March 11, 12, and 13, 1915 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915), pp. 142-46. Graves's outspoken private views are clearly revealed in his lengthy correspondence with J. Horace McFarland, president of the American Civic Association. See the J. Horace McFarland Papers, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Division of Archives and Manuscripts, Harrisburg, Box 18, especially Graves to McFarland, March 30, 1916. "My own view has always been that the National Park Service should be in the Department of Agriculture," Graves wrote. "I expressed my views on this subject to [the secretary of the interior] in 1911 in various conferences and also in official correspondence."

34. Henry S. Graves, "National and State Parks," American Forests and Forest Life 33 (February 1927): 97-100.

35. Graves, "National and State Parks, Part II," ibid., (March 1927): 150.

36. U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of Population: Characteristics, vol. 1, pt. 1, chapters, pp. 35-37.

37. "Summary of Resolutions Adopted by President's National Conference on Outdoor Recreation," Playground 18 (July 1924): 247.

38. Ibid.

39. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, A Study of the Park and Recreation Problem of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1941), p. 90.

40. U.S., Statutes at Large, 50 (1937): 670.

41. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on the Public Lands, Cape Cod National Seashore Park, Hearing on S. 857, 87th Cong., 1st sess., March 9, 1961.

42. Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall described possible methods of long-term acquisition in ibid., p. 10. Section 4 (a)(1) of the bill further provided: "The beneficial owner or owners of improved property which the Secretary acquires by condemnation may elect, as a condition to such acquisition, to retain the right of use and occupancy of the said property for noncommercial residential purposes for a term of twenty-five years, or for such lesser time as the said owner or owners may elect at the time of such acquisition." Ibid., p. 5.

43. U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 87th Cong., 1st sess., June 27, 1961, p. 11391.

44. Ibid., pp. 11391-92.

45. Significant facts and dates of establishment for all the national parks are provided in U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Index of the National Park System and Related Areas as of June 1, 1982 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1982).

46. R. M. Strong, "Indiana's Unspoiled Dunes," National Parks Magazine 33 (August 1959): 6-7. A social, cultural, and intellectual history of the region is J. Ronald Engel, Sacred Sands: The Struggle for Community in the Indiana Dunes (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1983). This should be supplemented with a provocative political history, Kay Franklin and Norma Schaeffer, Duel for the Dunes: Land Use Conflict on the Shores of Lake Michigan (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983).

47. National Park Service, Index, p. 37. Hearings on the park were first held in 1961. See U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Ozark Rivers National Monument, Hearing on S. 1381, 87th Cong., 1st sess., July 6, 1961.

48. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Wild and Scenic Rivers, Hearings on S. 119 and S. 1092, 90th Cong., 1st sess., April 13-14, 1967; U.S., Congress, House, Providing for a National Scenic Rivers System, H. Rept. 1623 to accompany H.R. 18260, 90th Cong., 2d sess., July 3, 1968.

49. To be sure, one of the most consistent themes of all of the federal hearings regarding wild and scenic rivers, national seashores, and national lakeshores is opposition to the parks by competitive resource management agencies and influential commercial interests. For an other revealing example of those pressures, specifically, major limitations imposed on Ozark National Scenic Riverways through the elimination of twenty thousand acres along the Eleven Point River, see U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, The Ozark National Rivers, Hearings on S. 16, 88th Cong., 1st sess., April 8-9 and May 22, 1963.

50. For a recent analysis of this argument and its implications for policy see Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1984), pp. 46-47,218-22.

51. National Park Service, Index, pp. 19, 43.

52. Lake Mead National Recreation Area, formed by Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, bordering Arizona and Nevada, was the first. Ibid., p. 39.

53. U.S., Statutes at Large, 78(1964): 897-904; ibid., 82(1968): 354-56.

54. See Foresta, America's National Parks, pp. 237-40.

55. S. 857, Hearing, pp. 11,34-35.

56. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks, Ozark National Rivers, Missouri, Hearings on H.R. 1803, H.R. 2884, and S. 16, 88th Cong., 1st sess., April 9 and May 6, 1963, pp. 22, 27; U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, Hearings on S. 2249, 88th Cong., 2d sess., March 5-7, 1964, p. 5. For similar statements, also see U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Sleeping Bear Dunes National Recreation Area, Hearing on S. 2153, 87th Cong., 1st sess., November 13, 1961, pp. 11-13; and U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Hearing on S. 1143, 88th Cong., 2d sess., July 20, 1964, pp. 8-11.

57. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Gateway Area Proposals, Hearings on H.R. 1370, H.R. 1121, and Related Bills, 92d Cong., 1st sess., June 26, July 19-20, 1971, p. 55; U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Proposed Cuyahoga Valley National Historical Park and Recreation Area, Part I, Hearing on H.R. 7167 and Related Bills, 93d Cong., 2d sess., March 1, 1974, p.9.

58. See, for example, Representative Seiberling's continuing remarks in H.R. 7167, Hearing, pp. 9-10.

59. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, Golden Gate National Recreation Area, Hearings on S. 2342, S. 3174, and H.R. 16444, 92d Cong., 2d sess., September 22 and 27, 1972, p. 74. Also see U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, Santa Monica Mountain and Seashore National Urban Park, Hearings on S. 1270, 93d Cong., 2d sess., June 15 and August 1, 1974, passim.

60. National Parks and Recreation Act, Legislative History, pp. 978-86.

61. Ibid., p. 985.

62. Ibid., p. 981.

63. "NPCA Interviews Phillip Burton," p. 22.

1. Robert A. Jones, "Alaska Parks: Battle Lines Form around Last Frontier," Los Angeles Times, September 5, 1977, pt. 1, p. l.

2. Peggy Wayburn, "Great Stakes in the Great Land: Alaska Parks for Public Good," Sierra Club Bulletin 59 (September 1974): 17-18.

3. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands, Inclusion of Alaska Lands in National Park, Forest, Wildlife Refuge, and Wild and Scenic Rivers Systems, Hearings on H.R. 39, H.R. 1974, H.R. 2876, H.R. 5505, et al., 95th Cong., 1st sess., April 21-September 21, 1977, Pt. 1, pp. 184, 188. Hereafter cited as H.R. 39, Hearings.

4. Ibid., p. 162.

5. George Catlin, Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians, 2 vols. (London: H. G. Bohn, 1851), 1:262.

6. H.R. 39, Hearings, pt. 1, p. 635.

7. Ibid., pp. 944-45.

8. See Morgan Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska: A History of Wildlife and People (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).

9. The quote is attributed to Allen H. Morgan, former executive vice president of the Massachusetts Audubon Society. Les Line, ed., What We Save Now ...: An Audubon Primer of Defense (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, in cooperation with the National Audubon Society, 1973), p. vii.

10. I have avoided duplication of the history of the wilderness movement and parklands in Alaska as previously treated in Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3d ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Michael Frome, Battle for the Wilderness (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974); and Craig W. Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982).

11. See Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, chapter 5; and Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1984), pp. 69-70.

12. Conrad L. Wirth, as director of the Park Service between 1951 and 1964, literally felt betrayed by preservation interests because of their growing opposition to roads. See Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980), pp. 358-61.

13. U.S., Statutes at Large, 84 (1970-71): 1105-6; U.S., National Park Service, Index of the National Park System and Related Areas as of June 1, 1982 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 20; U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 94th Cong., 2d sess., September 26, 1976, pp. 31888-91; U.S., Statutes at Large, 90(1976): 2692-96. The controversial side of national park wilderness is also revealed in U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Designation of Wilderness Areas, Part IV, Hearings on H.R. 13562 and H.R. 13563, 93d Cong., 2d sess., March 22, 25, and 26, 1974, passim; and U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Designating Certain Lands within Units of the National Park System as Wilderness ... and for Other Purposes, H. Rept. 94-1427 to accompany H.R. 13160, 94th Cong., 2d sess., August 13, 1976.

14. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks and Insular Affairs, Legislative History of the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978, Committee Print No. 11, 95th Cong., 2d sess., December 1978, p. 982.

15. See, for example, U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Subcommittee on Parks, Recreation, and Renewable Resources, National Park Service Concessions Policy, Hearings on Oversight—the Concessions Policy Act of 1965, 96th Cong., 1st sess., March 29, April 23 and 27, 1979.

16. A brief summary of this history is Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 281-88.

17. A concise yet detailed history of Alaska lands legislation is Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, chapter 7.

18. A further summary of these arguments is Eugenia Horstman Connally, ed., Wilderness Parklands in Alaska (Washington, D.C.: National Parks and Conservation Association, 1978).

19. U.S., Statutes at Large, 85(1971): 708-9.

20. Ibid. Also see Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, pp. 216-18.

21. Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, pp. 218-19.

22. Ibid., p. 219.

23. As quoted in ibid., p. 221.

24. H.R. 39, Hearings, pt. 1, pp. 1-8.

25. Ibid., pts. 2-13.

26. For a breakdown of public support, see Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, p. 223.

27. H.R. 39, Hearings, pt. 1, p. 2.

28. Ibid., pp. 3-4.

29. Ibid., pp. 4-5.

30. Ibid., pp. 103-6.

31. Ibid., pp. 104,107.

32. Ibid., pp. 118-19.

33. Sierra Club Alaska Task Force, Alaska Report 3 (September 1976): 1-8; Robert A. Jones, "Development or Parks?: Wild Alaska to Change; Only Direction is in Doubt," Los Angeles Times, September 6, 1977, pt. l, pp. 1,3, 16-17.

34. H.R. 39, Hearings, Pt. 1, p. 624.

35. Ibid., p. 156.

36. Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, p. 226.

37. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 95th Cong., 2d sess., May 17, 1978, pp. 14146-73; ibid., May 18, 1978, pp. 14391-14470; ibid., May 19, 1978, pp. 14660-95.

38. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 298.

39. Cecil D. Andrus, "Guarding Alaska's Crown Jewels," Los Angeles Times, October 11, 1978, pt. 2, p. 7.

40. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 298; Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, p. 236; U.S., Statutes at Large, 93 (1978-79): 1446-75.

41. U.S., Congress, House, Congressional Record, 96th Cong., 1st sess., May 16, 1979, pp. 11457-59. The first vote, 268 to 157, upheld Representative Udall's more generous version of the bill. The final vote, taken after substitutes to Udall's bill were defeated, was 360 to 65. Further Senate limitations on protection are discussed in Allin, Politics of Wilderness Preservation, pp. 244-55.

42. As quoted in Julius Duscha, "How the Alaska Act Was Won," Living Wilderness 44 (Spring 1981): 9.

43. As quoted in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 301.

44. Charles M. Clusen, "Viewpoint," Living Wilderness 44 (Spring 1981): 3. Acreages, details, and descriptions of the protected lands are to be found in Charles R. Miller, "The New National Interest Lands," ibid., pp. 10-13; and Celia Hunter and Ginny Wood, "Alaska National Interest Lands: The D-2 Lands," Alaska Geographic, vol.8, no.4 (1981): 1-240.

45. On preservationists' concerns and disappointments, see Rebecca Wodder, "The Alaska Challenge Ahead," Living Wilderness 44 (Spring 1981): 13-19; Charles M. Clusen, "Viewpoint," ibid., p. 3; Bill Curry, "Alaska Land Battle Far from Settled," Los Angeles Times, July 25, 1983, pt. 1, pp. 1, 11; and Jim Doherty, "Alaska: The Real National Lands Battle is Just Getting Under Way," Audubon 85 (January 1983).

46. The hearings are especially instructive. See U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Proposed Big Thicket National Reserve, Texas, Hearings on H.R. 4270, et al., 93d Cong., 1st sess., July 16 and 17, 1973; and idem, Proposed Big Cypress Reserve, Florida, Hearings on H.R. 46 and H.R. 4866, 93d Cong., 1st sess., May 10 and 11, 1973.

47. See, for example, H. R. 39, Hearings, pts. 8-13, passim.

48. Ibid., Pt. 13, p. 215.

49. See, for example, Edgar Wayburn, "Hunters Take Aim at Alaska's National Parks," Sierra 68 (May-June 1983): 16-19.

50. Alaska Coalition, "Alaska: Imperiled Heritage," undated leaflet.

51. Margaret Murie, Two in the Far North, 2d ed. (Anchorage: Alaska Northwest Publishing Co., 1978), preface.

52. By preservationists' own admission, the issue of resource extraction was still unresolved. Important documents portending the fate of commercially productive lands within or adjacent to national parks, wilderness areas, and wildlife refuges include U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, An Assessment of Mineral Resources in Alaska, prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Land Management, Committee Print, 93d Cong., 2d sess., July 1974.

1. Peter Steinhart, "Interior Motives: Will Watt Get His Way in the Parks?" Los Angeles Times, May 3, 1981, pt. 5, p. 2; Michael Frome, "Park Concessions and Concessioners," National Parks 55 (June 1981): 16-18; and Peter Steinhart, "The Park Service Feels an Early Winter Chill from Watt's Interior," Los Angeles Times, November 8, 1981, Pt. 5, pp. 1-2.

2. Then known as the Mammoth Oil Company. See Burl Noggle, Teapot Dome: Oil and Politics in the 1920's (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1962), and Morris Robert Werner and John Starr, Teapot Dome (New York: Viking, 1959).

3. For an inventory of preservationists' objections to Watt's policies, see "Watt's Wrongs," Living Wilderness 45 (Fall 1981): 40-41.

4. Watt's views, of course, were often in keeping with those of conservatives within the National Park Service itself, who likewise saw urban parks as a distraction from the Park Service's original and legitimate mission. See Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1983), pp. 77-82, 175-76. For further analyses of Watt's policies, see T. H. Watkins, "James Gaius Watt: An Idea Whose Time Has Gone," Living Wilderness 45 (Winter 1981): 34-38; Chuck Williams, "The Park Rebellion: Charles Cushman, James Watt, and the Attack on the National Parks," Not Man Apart 12 (June 1982): 11-26; "Battle over the Wilderness: Special Report," Newsweek 102 (July 25, 1983): 22-29; and Bil Gilbert and Robert Sullivan, "Inside Interior: An Abrupt Turn," Sports Illustrated 59 (September 26, 1983): 66-80, and (October 3, 1983): 96-112.

5. Gordon Anderson, "Coal: Threat to the Canyonlands," Living Wilderness (December 1980): 4-11; John J. Kearney, "Is the Air Visibility of Our National Parks Being Adequately Protected?" EPA Journal 7 (May 1981): 2-6; Jeff Radford, "Stripmining Arid Navajo Lands in the U.S.: Threats to Health and Heritage," Ambio, vol. 11, no. 1(1982): 9-14; Jerome Ostrov, "Visibility Protection under the Clean Air Act: Preserving Scenic and Parkland Areas in the Southwest," Ecology Law Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 3 (1982): 397-453.

6. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, State of the Parks—1980: A Report to the Congress, prepared by the Office of Science and Technology, May 1980, p. viii.

7. U.S., Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Final Environmental Impact Statement of the Island Park Geothermal Area, Idaho-Montana-Wyoming, January 15, 1980, p. 112.

8. Rick Reese, Greater Yellowstone: The National Park and Adjacent Wild Lands, Montana Geographic Series No. 6 (Helena: Montana Magazine, Inc., 1984); Dave Alt, Curt W. Buchholtz, et al., Glacier Country: Montana's Glacier National Park, Montana Geographic Series No. 4 (Helena: Montana Magazine, Inc., 1983). Wildlife issues have been exhaustively debated in Warren Hanna, The Grizzlies of Glacier (Missoula, Mont.: Mountain Press, 1978); Frank C. Craighead, Jr., Track of the Grizzly (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1979); Paul Schullery, The Bears of Yellowstone (Yellowstone National Park: Yellowstone Library and Museum Association, 1980); Thomas McNamee, The Grizzly Bear (New York: Knopf, 1984); and Alston Chase, "The Last Bears of Yellowstone, Atlantic Monthly 251 (February 1983): 63-73.

9. Vic Ostrowidzki, "Clark Will Keep Environmentalists Active," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 24, 1983, pt. A, p. 9.

10. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949), pp. 209,224-25. An excellent summary of threats to the national parks in the 1980s is Robert Cahn, "Islands in a Storm: Our National Parks," five parts, Christian Science Monitor, June 14-18, 1982, passim. Also see Robert Cahn, "The National Parks: The People, the Parks, the Politics," Sierra 68 (May-June 1983): 46-55; and Philip Shabecoff, "National Parks under Threat from Civilization They Serve," New York Times, July 30, 1984, pt. 1, pp. 1, 11.