Notes

1. James William Tourney, "Cliff- and Cave-Dwellers of Central Arizona," Science 20 (11 November 1892), 269.

2. Ibid., 269—70.

3. Among the articles on the ruins appearing during this period were Charles Lummis, "Montezuma's Castle" and "Montezuma's Well," both of which appeared in his column "Strange Corners of Our Country," St. Nicholas 19 (July 1892): 701—8; Sharlot M. Hall, "The Cliff-Dwellings of the Lower Verde Valley, Northern Arizona," Archaeologist 3 (April 1893): 119—22; Charles F. Lummis, "Montezuma's Castle," Land of Sunshine 6 (January 1897): 70—73; Charles F. Lummis, "Montezuma's Well," Land of Sunshine 6 (February 1897): 103—6; Sharlot M. Hall, "Prehistoric Fancy-work," Land of Sunshine 8 (April 1898): 221—23; "The Rescue of Montezuma's Castle," Land of Sunshine 10 (December 1898): 44—45.

4. For more on the early photographers of Arizona, see Jeremy Rowe, Photographers in Arizona: 1850—1920: A History and Directory (Nevada City, Calif.: Carl Mautz Publishing, 1997) and Robert L. Spude, "Shadow Catchers: A Portrait of Arizona's Pioneer Photographers, 1863—1893," Journal of Arizona History 30 (autumn 1989): 233—50.

5. Lummis, "Montezuma's Castle," Land of Sunshine 6 (January 1897), 73.

6. F. G. Steenberg, "Montezuma Castle in 1894," Southwestern National Monuments, supplement (November 1937), 400.

7. Ibid., 401.

8. S. J. Palmer Jr., "Montezuma Castle in 1896," Southwestern National Monuments, supplement (January 1940), 63.

9. The Mancos Times, 20 March 1896, quoted in Frank McNitt, Richard Wetherill: Pioneer Explorer of Southwestern Ruins (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966), 332—33.

10. Articles on the discovery of prehistoric sites and the removal of valuable artifacts were featured in papers such as the Coconino Sun, which also ran coverage on the efforts to protect ancient cultural resources. The looting of sites was common during the 1880s and 1890s, and was frequently written about in the papers because readers were curious about the type and value of discovered artifacts. Examples of such articles include "Aztec Remains Result of Excavations Being Made on the Verde," Arizona Gazette, 8 November 1880; "An Ancient Burying Ground: What It Yielded Up to a Prospector for Relics of Antiquity," Coconino Sun, 31 December 1898; "Pre-Historic Arizonans: Some Remarkable Discoveries Made in the Vicinity of the Verde Valley," Coconino Sun, 8 April 1899.

11. The incorporators of the association were Dr. Joshua Miller (president), Dr. James McNaughton (secretary and treasurer), Col. Charles W. Johnstone Sr., Harry Z. Zuck, Edmund W. Wells Jr., Thomas G. Norris, and C. W. Crouse. (Source: David Wilcox's personal notes on the Arizona Antiquarian Association.)

12. One of Miller's exploration trips was detailed in his article "A Visit to Tusayan," which appeared in Arizona Educator 2 (October 1895): 9—10. Miller noted that he was required to secure a permit from the Department of the Interior for the excavation of the Tusayan ruins, which were on public lands. However, it seemed that others had previously been to the site; he wrote that except for the artifacts in his personal collection, most other items from the Tusayan ruins ended up in "eastern or foreign museums" or in the hands of curio dealers. Such experiences surely made Miller feel more strongly about preserving Arizona antiquities and precipitated his involvement with the Arizona Antiquarian Association and the efforts to establish a museum for the preservation and display of artifacts from around the territory.

13. Byron Cummings, "Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society, 1916—1917," Manuscript Series 200, box 6, folder 69, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson.

14. Article appearing in the Oasis, 1897, quoted in David R. Wilcox, Frank Midvale's Investigation of the Site of La Ciudad (Phoenix: Arizona Department of Transportation, 1987), 16.

15. An excellent overview of the activities and members of the Antiquarian Association is provided in Wilcox, Frank Midvale's Investigation, 16—19. Other references are found in "The Arizona Antiquarian Society," Natural Science News 1 (1 February 1896), 4; "The Arizona Antiquarian Association," Arizona Educator 1 (10 January 1896), 10; "The Arizona Antiquarian Association," Land of Sunshine 6 (January 1897), 93—94.

16. Frank C. Reid, letter to the editor of the Coconino Sun, 12 November 1896.

17. Frank C. Reid, letter to the editor of the Flagstaff Sun-Democrat, 1 April 1897.

18. It is unclear who took part in the Montezuma Castle repair expedition besides Miller. A brief note on the association's work in a newspaper from 7 April 1897 mentioned Gus Williams (J. A. Rokohl) and Mr. DeMora as two of the people helping to make repairs to the Castle. Source: Sharlot Hall Museum Archives, Prescott, Arizona, clippings file, folder 21.

19. Dr. Joshua Miller, "The Montezuma Castle Repair Expedition," The Antiquarian 1 (September 1897): 228.

20. The ledger book for the Miller Collection, now held at the Arizona State Museum, lists artifacts gathered from Montezuma Castle as well as from other sites in the Verde Valley.

21. David R. Wilcox, Frank Midvale's Investigation, 16—19; for a history of the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society (and the Arizona Historical and Archaeological Society), see Bernice Johnston, "Fifty Years of the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society," Kiva 32 (December 1966): 42—53. A list of contributors for the purchase of the Miller Collection is noted in Byron Cummings, "Arizona Archaeological and Historical Association." Seventy dollars was turned over by the defunct Historical and Archaeological Society for the acquisition of the collection. Individual members of the society made up the difference, with contributions of between ten and one hundred dollars.

22. An interesting contrast to Miller is contemporary Dwight Heard, who purchased property with archeological sites, excavated these sites, and then created the well-known Heard Museum in Phoenix. For a discussion of Heard's activities in archeology and the founding of his museum, see Ann E. Marshall and Mary H. Brennan, The Heard Museum: History and Collections (Phoenix: Heard Museum, 1995).

23. For a detailed discussion on the background and creation of the Antiquities Act, see chapter 3 of Hal Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989). A good discussion of the Antiquities Act in regard to southwestern archeological sites can also be found in chapter 3 of George M. Lubick, Petrified Forest National Park: A Wilderness Bound in Time (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996).

24. Edgar L. Hewett, Circular Relating to Historic and Prehistoric Ruins of the Southwest and Their Preservation (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 12.

25. Sites such as Montezuma Castle, Petrified Forest, and Devils Tower did not have the dramatic scenery that characterized already established national parks and were considered to be an "inferior" class of park. For a discussion about Interior Department concern regarding inferior national parks, see chapter 4 of Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts.

26. W. A. Richards, Washington, D.C., to Edgar L. Hewett, Washington, D.C., 5 October 1904, reprinted in Hewett, Circular Relating to Historic and Prehistoric Ruins of the Southwest, 12—13.

27. The proposed Rio Verde Forest Reserve had been temporarily withdrawn by Secretarial Order on 14 December 1901. A 16 May 1910 Secretarial Order eventually restored the land to the public domain, except for the portion that was part of Montezuma Castle National Monument. This information is recorded in the Bureau of Land Management plat maps and historical indexes, Phoenix office.

28. W A. Richards, Washington, D.C., to F. S. Breen, Flagstaff, 15 October 1904, reprinted in Hewett, Circular Relating to Historic and Prehistoric Ruins of the Southwest, 13—14.

29. Special Agent George Wilson to General Land Office, Washington, D.C., 25 July 1904, report at the National Archives, Record Group 79, box 593.

30. An article appearing in a journal about American Indian culture and issues in 1904 expressed concern regarding the destruction of the ruins and provided further evidence of the damage sustained by the Castle at this time. The article noted that "One of the principal rooms in the great pile was completely ruined last year by blasting open the supposed burial vaults there in hope of getting relics for exhibition at the Pan-American exposition, and during the past four months a great wall, which undoubtedly would have endured a thousand years longer, fell with a crash into the canon below, because of undermining by reckless curio seekers." See "Vandals Destroy Our Treasures of Science," Papoose I (March 1903): 12.

31. There is some question regarding the status of the ownership of Montezuma Castle in the early 1900s. The Bureau of Land Management plat mats and historical indexes list no homestead entries or patents of this property. No mention of settlers in Sections 16 and 17 in Wilson's report would seem to support this. However, Mr. J. A. Rokohl (a.k.a. Gus Williams) of Prescott was reported to be the owner of the landmark. In an article from 31 August 1899 on Rokohl's marriage to Miss Carrie Collins, a reporter noted that the couple left "to spend their honeymoon in Montezuma's castle which Mr. Rokohl owns and which also he has preserved." ( Source: Sharlot Hall Museum Archives, clippings file, folder 21). Another article referred to Rokohl as "the First King of Montezuma Castle" (article from 7 April 1897, Sharlot Hall Museum Archives, clippings file, folder 2l). Mr. Rokohl was a member of the Arizona Antiquarian Association and apparently did help with the repair expedition at the Castle. Interestingly, however, another newspaper story noted that a large metate removed from Montezuma Castle by J. A. Pewette on 8 December 1897 was on display at Rokohl's saloon in Prescott (Sharlot Hall Museum Archives, clippings file, folder 21). That a member of the Antiquarian Association would display an artifact taken from Montezuma Castle seems odd. However, there is no clear evidence about Rokohl's claims to ownership of the Castle.

32. Wilson to General Land Office, 25 July 1904.

33. Special Agent George Wilson to General Land Office, 13 August 1904, report at the National Archives, Record Group 79, box 593. William Back acquired the Well and began homesteading there in 1879, but did not receive the deed for the property until 1907.

34. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 57—59.

35. Edgar L. Hewett to General Land Office, Washington, D.C., 25 January 1905, National Archives, Record Group 79, box 593.

36. Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson to secretary of the interior, 12 December National Archives. Record Group 79, box 599.

37. John McPharl, General Land Office, to commissioner, General Land Office, 23 February 1905, National Archives, Record Group 79, box 599; Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson to secretary of the interior, 6 March 1905, National Archives, Record Group 79, box 599.

38. US. Statutes at Large 34 (1906), Stat. 225.

39. Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, 43—48.

40. Devils Tower was established as the first national monument, proclaimed on 24 September 19116.