Chapter 4
Paul Laurence Dunbar
One of the clients of Wright & Wright, Job Printers, was
Orville's high school friend, Paul Laurence Dunbar. Born and raised in
Dayton, Paul moved away from the city after achieving international
acclaim as a poet and writer, but he returned to his home town in 1903
when he was dying of tuberculosis. Paul's experiences in Dayton
contributed to his becoming a ground breaking African American literary
figure. Like the Wright brothers, the poet's rise as a literary figure
owed much to his close relationship with his mother. She supported him
in his decision to pursue a literary career and in his struggle for
recognition both in Dayton and the world.
Strong family ties shaped Dunbar's early development in Dayton and
his rise to literary fame. The family support that was so important in
Paul's life was a predominant characteristic of African American
families. In The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925, Herbert
G. Gutman studied the family life of African Americans both during
slavery and after emancipation. He found that, contrary to modern
perception of the slave experience, strong family ties existed during
slavery and continued in the difficult decades immediately thereafter.
The family helped to preserve African American culture and provided
support during enslavement and poverty. Through his mother's family,
Paul experienced the close knit African American family life that
Gutman's research revealed. [1]
MATILDA DUNBAR
(Courtesy of Dayton and Montgomery County Public Library)
|
Paul was born in Dayton on June 27, 1872, at 311 Howard Street, his
grandmother Elizabeth Burton's house. Paul's parents were both former
slaves. His mother, Matilda Glass Murphy Dunbar, was born into slavery
near Shelbyville, Kentucky, around 1844. She married Robert Murphy, a
slave on a neighboring plantation, and they had two children. William
Travis Murphy was born on February 12, 1864, in Kentucky, and Robert
Small Murphy was born on August 1, 1866, in Dayton. Matilda, who
separated from Murphy during the Civil War, moved to Dayton at the end
of the war to reunite with her mother, grandmother, and siblings. Upon
arriving in Dayton in the spring of 1866, Matilda worked as a laundress
to support her family. [2]
Many of Matilda's relatives lived in Dayton, and it appears that they
moved to the city because Rebecca Porter, her grandmother, resided in
the area. Rebecca settled in Dayton in 1839, when Samuel Steele, an
abolitionist from Dayton, purchased her while in Kentucky and then
manumitted her. Rebecca worked as a house servant for Steele, living in
Dayton until her death in 1869. Matilda's mother, Eliza Borden, moved to
Dayton in the 1860s from Kentucky. A former slave, Eliza worked as a
washerwoman in Dayton. Matilda's sister, Rebecca Borden Burton, who also
moved to Dayton in the 1860s, married Moses Voss on September 17, 1874.
She maintained close contact with Matilda throughout her life. [3]
Paul's father, Joshua Dunbar, was born in Garret County, Kentucky, in
1823. As a slave he worked as a plasterer or whitewasher, sometimes
being hired out to other plantations for his labor. Joshua escaped from
slavery via the Underground Railroad and settled in Canada. At the onset
of the Civil War, Joshua returned to the United States and in June 1863
he enlisted in the 55th Massachusetts Regiment of Volunteers, Company F,
as part of the U.S. Colored Troops. He was medically discharged at Folly
Island, South Carolina, on October 28, 1863, due to varicose veins in
his left leg. Joshua later re-enlisted with the Fifth Massachusetts
Cavalry on January 9, 1864. He served with the Massachusetts Cavalry
until October 3, 1865, when he was discharged at Clarksville, Texas.
Following his discharge, Joshua settled in Dayton and worked as a
plasterer. According to his Civil War records, Joshua was between five
feet eight and ten inches tall with dark skin, eyes, and hair. [4]
Joshua Dunbar and Matilda Murphy met in Dayton and were married by
Reverend William McKee on Christmas Eve 1871. In addition to Paul
Laurence, they had another child, Liza Florence Dunbar, born on October
29, 1873, a year and a half after Paul's birth. [5] Liza died on May 30, 1876, of marasmus, or
malnutrition, and she was buried in the city lot at Woodland Cemetery.
Matilda and Joshua's marriage was short; by 1874, Joshua boarded at 310
Baxter Street on the West Side while Matilda still lived at 311 Howard
Street. Matilda filed for divorce in January 1876, claiming that "the
said defendant has been wrongfully and willfully absent from the said
petitioner for more than three years last past." She requested custody
of the children and the return of her maiden name. Although granted the
reinstatement of her maiden name, she never used it. [6]
Both Matilda and Joshua placed a high value on reading and education,
and both parents passed on this interest to Paul. In a 1902 newspaper
article, Paul stated:
My mother, who had no education except what she picked up herself,
and who is generally conceded to be a very unusual woman, taught me to
read when I was four years old. Both my father and herself were fond of
books and used to read to us as we sat around the fire at night. [7]
In addition, both Matilda and Joshua told stories of their lives as
slaves and their experiences during the Civil War. [8]
Paul began his public education in 1878 at the Fifth District School
located on East Fifth Street near Eagle Street. Matilda, often referred
to as Mother Dunbar, and her children still resided with her mother at
311 Howard Street when Paul started school. According to the Sanborn
Insurance Map, in 1897 a two-story brick building with frame cornice and
a one-story frame addition on the rear stood on this site. The property
also contained two one-story frame outbuildings. Quite probably, these
structures post-dated the house inhabited by the Dunbars. [9]
At that time, African Americans residing in Dayton tended to live in
small clusters scattered throughout neighborhoods that bordered the
city's central core. Housing available to Dayton's African American
residents tended to be bungalow-style homes and rented apartments
instead of lower quality tenements. The neighborhood in which the
Dunbars resided was part of the Haymarket area. Located near "Africa," a
settlement of African Americans near the Canal Basin and Second Street,
Haymarket was first platted in 1829. [10]
While near the African American settlement, mainly white households
were located along Howard Street. In fact, the Dunbars were the only
African Americans residing on the street in 1870. The Dunbars neighbors
were equally divided between German immigrants and United States
citizens of European descent. This was a very stable middle class
neighborhood with the majority of residents remaining in the area for
many years. [11]
Matilda moved from the family home on Howard Street in 1880 or 1881
to the south side of Magnolia Street west of Brown Street. This area was
once part of Slidertown and in 1880 was platted as South Park. Magnolia
Street, located near Deaconess Hospital, was a small street containing
eight households. The residents were all lower middle class workers. One
household was operated as a widow's home, which housed as many as four
widows at a time. As a result of the family's move, Paul transferred
schools before the third grade to the Third District School located on
Ludlow Street, south of the railroad tracks. [12]
The Dunbars did not reside on Magnolia Street very long. Within the
year they moved again, this time to 116 Sycamore Street. Mother Dunbar
and Paul moved into a divided two-story frame house. Similar to an
apartment building, the structure housed three different households in
1880. This neighborhood was racially mixed, containing an almost equal
number of white and African American households. [13]
BOYS FROM SLIDERTOWN
(Courtesy of NCR Archives at Montgomery County Historical Society)
|
Matilda and Paul moved again in 1882, to a house located at 121 Short
Wilkinson Street. The area was inhabited by about half African Americans
and half German immigrants. Following the move, Paul again changed
schools to the African American school in the Tenth District. While Paul
attended the Tenth District School, the Dayton School Board, in 1884,
began plans to integrate the school system to decrease operating
expenses. Many African Americans successfully fought this action in the
belief that integration would decrease their children's opportunities.
[14]
Outside of school Paul was active in the church. On May 17, 1885, he
joined the Eaker Street African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church,
located on the south side of Eaker Street near Perry. Religion was a
major component in Matilda's life, and she hoped Paul would become a
minister. In the late nineteenth century, the ministry was one of the
few professions available to African Americans in which they could
excel. Dreaming of greatness for her son, Mother Dunbar believed the
ministry was a road to success for Paul. [15]
Paul's father, Joshua, moved to the Central Branch of the National
Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers (Old Soldier's Home), now the
Dayton Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, on February 4, 1882. Paul might
have visited Joshua at the Old Soldier's Home by using the street car
that ran up Third Street. While this is a logistical possibility, no
evidence of any visits exists. On August 16, 1885, Joshua died of pleuro
pneumonia at the Old Soldier's Home, and he was buried in the Dayton
National Cemetery at the same location. His burial record did not
identify any descendants, which implies that Paul and his father did not
have a close relationship. [16]
During Paul's childhood, Matilda worked hard as a laundress to
support her children, and all of them helped out by taking small jobs.
Among their many jobs, Paul and his half brothers worked as lamplighters
for the city until electric streetlights were installed beginning in
1883. When lamplighters were no longer needed, the brothers searched for
other jobs to supplement the family's income. Both Robert and William
quit school early and began working full time at the Beckel House, a
local hotel, located on Third Street. In later years they both left
Dayton, Robert for Cincinnati and then Chicago in 1887, and William for
Chicago in 1893. Both of them remained in Chicago until their deaths.
[17]
While Paul's brothers left Dayton in pursuit of employment, he
continued to attend Dayton public schools. Both of his parents held
ambitions that he would graduate from high school, and Paul was also
dedicated to completing school. While in school, Paul developed an
interest in literature, especially poetry. The exact date when Paul
began composing poetry is unknown, although Paul stated that he began
rhyming when he was six years old. In 1902, he described the
circumstances leading to his interest in rhymes:
One morning at school I came across something by Wadsworth, and a
gentleman living in Dayton happening to have a similar name, I at once
concluded that the verses were written by him. This invested them with
peculiar interest, making them seem very wonderful, and as I crossed the
railroad track in going home I remember trying to put words together for
myself that had a jingling sound. [18]
Paul began writing poems when he was nearly twelve years old and
published his first poem at fourteen. He gave his first recitation, "An
Easter Ode," at the Eaker Street AME Church Easter Celebration in 1885.
[19]
BECKEL HOUSE
(Courtesy of Dayton and Montgomery County Public Library)
|
Shortly thereafter he began reciting at assembly programs in
intermediate school. Orville Wright was a student in the class, and the
two met when Orville complimented Paul on a reading after an assembly.
The two became friends and often walked home from school together.
Paul's reverent demeanor during the assembly recitations earned him the
nickname "Deacon" from his classmates. "Deacon Dunbar has very good
health" read an 1886 entry in the personal section of Orville's first
newspaper, The Midget. [20]
An intermediate school teacher, Samuel C. Wilson, encouraged Paul in
his writing efforts. In later years, Paul singled him out as an
individual who did more to foster his continuing interest in poetry than
any other person. Wilson, a poet himself, offered Paul both criticism
and encouragement, and Paul continued to solicit his opinions in later
years. [21]
Paul graduated from intermediate school in 1886 and entered Central
High School, located on Wilkinson between Fourth and Maple Streets, the
following fall. Like other secondary schools in Dayton, Central High
School was integrated. Though Paul was the only African American in his
class, there were several other African Americans attending the school,
including Paul's good friend Bud Burns who was a year younger. Paul
later described his experiences at Central High School as "pleasant,"
and he reflected in 1898, that "I was the only Negro in the class and
apparently popular. My chums encouraged me. My teachers encouraged me."
[22]
Active in student activities, Paul joined the Philomathean Society
(the literary club) in 1888, and he was elected president for the 1891
spring semester. In addition, Paul also contributed to the school
newspaper, the High School Times, being named general assistant editor
in January 1889 for the remainder of the school year and editor-in-chief
in June 1890 for the upcoming fall semester. [23]
On November 6, 1888, the first joint meeting of the Philomatheon
Society and the Spur Club, a girl's club at the high school, was held.
At the meeting, Paul teamed with Aurelius Crown to argue the negative in
the debate question, "resolved: that Shakespeare wrote the Shakespearean
dramas." The debate was decided in favor of Paul and Aurelius. [24]
As well as being an active member of the Philomatheon Society, Paul
was a frequent contributor to the High School Times. His interest in
poetry was obvious, for he was never listed as an author of an article,
but many of his poems were published in the newspaper. [25]
PHILOMATHEAN CARTOON FROM TOMFOOLERY
(Courtesy of Dayton and Montgomery County Public Library)
|
One of Paul's early poems, "My Best Girl," appeared in an issue of
Tomfoolery. Edited by Dunbar's Central High School classmates Ernest
Blumenschein and George Compton, Tomfoolery was a weekly handwritten
humor magazine that cost ten cents per school year. The group only made
one copy of the magazine and then charged a nickel to read it. In
addition to Paul's poetry, another issue of the magazine included a
cartoon of the Philomathean Society debating, "Which is the butt end of
the goat?" In the cartoon, Paul, in a nice suit, sat attentive and with
decorum while the remainder of the club energetically pursued the
debate. [26]
Outside of school, Paul and his friend Randolph Tams joined the
Knights of Pythias, a local fraternal organization, Gem City Lodge
Number Two. The club met on the first and third Mondays of each month in
clubrooms at the northeast corner of Market and Main Streets. As a
result of a special Knight of Pythias drama program he attended, Paul
along with some friends, in 1888, founded the Philodramian Club, meaning
fond of drama in Greek. The members of the club included many of Paul's
friends: Randolph, Charley Higgins, Bud Burns, Charles Matthews, Jake
Payne, Ennis Hawkins, and William Shaw. The club members performed
various plays, and while there were no female members, they did invite
young women to participate when actresses were needed for various roles.
[27]
Throughout his years at Central High School, Paul and his mother
moved frequently. In 1887, they lived on the north side of Washington
Street in the second house west of Perry Street, but they stayed there
less than a year. In 1888, they moved to 317 West Washington Street, the
first house west of Perry. One of the reasons that the Dunbars moved
into these larger homes was so Mother Dunbar could rent out the
additional rooms to supplement the family income. In fact, one of the
boarders at the Washington Street house was Daniel Simmons who resided
at 116 Sycamore Street with the Dunbars in 1881. [28]
Then, in 1891, Matilda and Paul moved to 818 North Linden in
Riverdale, an area where few African Americans resided. The Dunbars'
house was located near the Great Miami River at the rear of the lot.
Dunbar named the house "Riverhaven Cottage." Riverdale began developing
in the mid-nineteenth century, and in 1880, when the traction car
connected Riverdale and downtown Dayton on the White Line, rapid growth
began. The majority of the residents were white professional people, and
the homes were small cottages or Queen Anne style houses. The streetcar
ran near their house, and Paul and Matilda would use it to commute into
the city. However, they often did not have enough money for the fare and
would walk the short distance to town. [29]
During this time, Paul continued to write poetry, and his poems were
first published by the Dayton Herald in 1888. The first poem
included in the paper, "Our Martyred Soldiers," appeared in the June 2,
1888, issue. The second poem published by the Dayton Herald, "On
the River," was in the July 13, 1888, issue. Paul was not paid for these
poems, but he was encouraged by seeing his poetry in print. [30]
While Paul's interest in poetry and literature increased, his friend
Orville Wright established himself in the printing business. Paul became
Orville's client in December 1890, when Paul started a weekly newspaper,
Dayton Tattler. Paul served as the editor and main contributor
while Preston Finley was the associate editor. In addition, Chester B.
Broady acted as the business manager, F.J. Mitchell as assistant
business manager, and William Mason and Val Anderson as local reporters.
Orville and Wilbur printed the assembled paper. Dayton Tattler cost
$1.50 for a year or fifty cents for a three month subscription. Only
three issues of the weekly newspaper, written for a primarily local
African American audience, were released. The first paper was issued
December 13, and the last on December 27, for Paul was forced to stop
publication when the newspaper failed to make a profit. [31]
FRONT PAGE OF THE DECEMBER 13, 1890 DAYTON TATTLER
(Courtesy of Dayton and Montgomery County Public Library)
|
The financial ledgers of Wright & Wright, Job Printers, reveal
that it cost $17.00 to print one issue of Dayton Tattler. The
books only recorded the printing costs for the second and third issues,
not the first, in addition to a $2.75 charge for a heading. Paul paid
$15.00 towards the $36.75 bill. The ledgers also document a printing
order for 500 Tattler bill heads amounting to $1.25. [32]
Also in 1890, an acquaintance of Paul's, Charles W. Faber, promised
him a position with his paper, the Democratic Sheet, if Paul solicited
fifty new subscribers. Faber also managed the Dayton Times and Evening
News. After canvassing Dayton for six weeks, Paul received subscriptions
from sixty people, but Faber reneged on his deal. [33]
While pursuing these other ventures, Paul never forgot the importance
of an education. He was disappointed in the spring of 1890 when the
principal at Central High School informed him that in order to graduate
from high school he would need to return for classes the following year.
Because of his extensive absences due to illness, Paul was forced to
repeat mathematics. He successfully passed the class the following year,
and on June 16, 1891, received his diploma from Central High School at
the Grand Opera House, now the Victoria Theater. At the graduation
ceremony, the entire graduating class performed "Farewell Song," written
by Paul with music by F.C. Mayer. [34]
Following graduation, Paul searched for a job worthy of a high school
graduate and dreamed of attending college. Instead, he encountered the
racism and bigotry typical of his time. Frustrated with his failure to
secure a job befitting a high school graduate, Paul accepted a position
at The National Cash Register Company as a janitor. An 1899 newspaper
article reported that in this position, Paul was one of thirty African
American janitors at the company, many of whom, including Paul, joined a
glee club. According to the article, Paul also wrote songs for the club
to perform. His slight stature and inability to lift heavy boxes forced
him to leave The National Cash Register Company shortly after accepting
the position. [35] Eventually Paul found
a position as an elevator operator at the Callahan Bank Building located
at 39 East Third Street. The job paid four dollars a week. In 1918,
Charles W. Dustin, a Dayton attorney, related how Paul obtained the
position,
He came on a weekly errand to a student in my office, and one day
applied for work. There was nothing in my control that I could give him
except the position of elevator boy in the Callahan block, of which I
then had charge as Mr. Callahan's agent. He took it, borrowed a law
book, and went on duty. [36]
Between elevator calls Paul read or wrote, composing poetry and short
stories. He was often seen perched on his stool in the elevator
surrounded by books and papers. Dustin recalled that, "One day I found
that he was trying his hand on a class of literature I did not suspect
he had any fancy for, viz: wild west stories. He found there was a
market for such stories with a Chicago firm... " After many attempts at
selling both stories and poems, Paul sold his first short story, written
in a western dialect and titled, "The Tenderfoot," to the Kellogg
Syndicate for six dollars in December 1891. [37]
Throughout 1891, Paul gave several recitations. The Wright &
Wright, Job Printers, financial ledgers document nine printing jobs for
Paul. These orders included materials used in connection with recitals,
such as tickets, handbills, and circulars. For example, in May, Paul
requested 1000 dodgers, at a charge of $1.25, and, in July, he ordered
500 tickets costing $1.30. It is not known where these recitals
occurred, although most likely they were in or near Dayton. [38]
With his salary as an elevator operator, Dunbar purchased a house in
May 1892, from the estate of Mary E. Garst. Located at 140 West Ziegler
Street on Dayton lot number 4833, the house cost $950.00. It was a one
and a half-story frame structure, and both Paul and Matilda lived in
this home. [39]
In the summer of 1892, Paul's former high school teacher, Mrs. Helen
M. Truesdall, invited him to present a welcoming address at the Western
Association of Writers meeting in Dayton on June 27, his twentieth
birthday. Composing a poem for the meeting, Paul left his elevator just
prior to the recitation and returned immediately after the conclusion.
The audience reacted favorably and was very impressed, and the next day
several people, including Dr. James Newton Matthews, a physician and
poet from Indiana, stopped at the Callahan Bank Building to speak with
the poet. Unfortunately, the elevator bell repeatedly summoned him away
from the conversation. Despite the interruptions, Dr. Matthews stayed to
speak with Paul and obtained copies of several poems. [40]
Following this meeting, Dr. Matthews included the poems in an article
published in newspapers both in the United States and England. The
article and poetry caught the attention of the Indiana poet, James
Whitcomb Riley, who wrote an encouraging letter to the young poet. In a
letter to Dr. Matthews, Paul thanked him for his article:
I want to thank you so much for that kindly, strengthening letter
as for your excellent article in the Journal. I can appreciate it the
more knowing as I do what little encouragement the papers of my own city
give me. [41]
In the fall of 1892, Paul considered publishing a book. The positive
response to the article by Dr. Matthews convinced Paul he would be able
to sell volumes of his poems in Indianapolis, Indiana, which was
Matthews' home, as well as Dayton. In addition, Charlotte Reeve Conover,
a prominent figure in Dayton society whose husband, Frank, worked in the
Callahan Bank Building, offered considerable encouragement each time she
saw Paul. After selecting the poems to be included, the soon-tobe author
went to the United Brethren Publishing House at the northeast corner of
Fourth and Main Streets to discuss the possibility of publishing his
book. Paul was told that without $125 to cover printing costs, the
United Brethren Publishing House would not print the book. As he was
leaving the building, Paul encountered William L. Blocher, a foreman at
the publishing house, who noticed how distraught he appeared. After
learning of Paul's financial predicament, Blocher promised to finance
the publishing costs. As a result, Dunbar's first book, Oak and
Ivy, was printed and ready for sale in December 1892. [42]
Paul remained intensely devoted to his mother throughout his life,
and she, in turn, offered him encouragement and support with his poetry
and writing. The two usually lived together, and when separated they
maintained communication through letters. Illustrative of Paul's
devotion to his mother was his dedication to her in his book:
To her
who has ever been
my guide, teacher, and inspiration,
My Mother
This little volume
is inscribed. [43]
Paul's Dayton supporters promised to purchase the book prior to its
release and continued to promote it after it went on sale. Students at
Central High School pledged to purchase copies and printed a
recommendation in the High School Times, the newspaper Paul
edited while in high school. The article argued that at a cost of one
dollar the volume would be a bargain even if a greater price was
charged. In addition, teachers and former classmates from Central High
School, as well as people from the Callahan Bank Building, vowed to
purchase copies of Oak and Ivy. [44]
With the publication of Oak and Ivy, Paul's literary career
continued to grow and opportunities for public performances increased.
In the spring of 1893, Dunbar traveled to Detroit to give readings at
various African American churches. En route he stopped in Toledo and met
with Charles Thatcher, an attorney who had written Paul praising Oak
and Ivy. Following the engagements in Detroit, Paul returned to
Toledo to give a recital arranged by Thatcher. Still impressed with the
poet, Thatcher, following the recital, wrote and offered him a loan of
fifty dollars per year to attend college. Nine additional people in
Toledo pledged to do the same, and Thatcher felt that still others would
participate. In response to Thatcher's offer, Paul responded that he was
currently doing well financially and, if possible, he preferred to pay
his own way through college. [45] Later,
in the spring of 1893, the Dayton Herald engaged Paul to write an
article about the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. This was the
second story that the newspaper contracted from him that spring, the
first having been a story on the Central Branch of the National Home for
Disabled Volunteer Soldiers (Old Soldier's Home). Knowing he would need
to find a full-time job to support himself while in Chicago, Paul
carefully considered the offer. Eventually he accepted, resigned his
position at the Callahan Bank Building, and left for Chicago. [46]
Once in Chicago, Paul immediately began searching for work. He first
found a job as a waiter, and when the World's Columbian Exhibition
opened he worked as a washroom attendant on the fairgrounds. Eventually,
Paul obtained a position under Frederick Douglass in the Haitian exhibit
as a clerical assistant. In order to employ the poet, Douglass paid his
salary out of his own pocket, not having the funds to pay Paul as an
official employee. After he found steady employment in Chicago, Paul
sent for his mother. She arrived shortly thereafter, and they lived in a
flat in the same building as her son and Paul's half-brother Rob and his
family. [47]
Paul and his mother returned to Dayton in November 1893. Facing the
same limited employment opportunities as before, Paul returned to his
position as elevator operator at the Callahan Bank Building. [48]
In a letter to Frederick Douglass on December 30, 1893, Dunbar
described his troubles upon returning to Dayton saying:
the price of ever meager success is much calimony. The people in
my town have never encouraged my aspirations, they have done all they
could to crush me and now on my return from a summer of hard and honest
effort I find a score of slander afloat concerning my sojourn to
Chicago. [49]
While Paul struggled to succeed in Dayton and often felt negative
reactions, a number of local citizens offered him assistance and
support. Shortly after his return to Dayton, Charles W. Dustin, who was
promoted to a judge in the Dayton Common Pleas Court, hired Paul as his
page. In a retrospective article on Paul, Dustin noted that this was
"the first time a colored man had ever been appointed to a position in
the court house, except a janitorship." Paul considered becoming an
attorney, and the Central High School newspaper reported that he had
begun to study law. Yet, he eventually chose not to pursue this
vocation. In sharing his decision, Paul noted that his desire to be a
writer far exceeded his interest in the law. He hoped to "interpret my
own people through song and story, and to prove to the many that after
all we are more human than African." [50]
Paul continued to search for other employment opportunities. In 1894,
he applied for a teaching position in Washington, D.C., at the
suggestion of his friend Rebekah Baldwin, a teacher whom he met in
Chicago. Hoping to receive the appointment, Paul asked his friend
Frederick Douglass to submit a reference on his behalf. Despite his
efforts, Paul was not offered the position. [51]
One employment opportunity that emerged in 1894 was an offer to join
a traveling African American concert company managed by William Edgar
Easton. Paul accepted the proposition and prepared extensively for the
performances by writing new poems and practicing old ones. The entire
operation collapsed when the company declared bankruptcy. Failure to
achieve further success as a poet and his endless financial struggles
took their toll on Paul, and in a November 7, 1894, letter to a friend,
he alluded to suicide saying, "There is only one thing left to be done,
and I am too big a coward to do that." [52]
Throughout 1894, Paul contended with financial problems and in one
instance asked Charles Thatcher if, instead of money for college, he
could borrow money to pay his mortgage on the Ziegler Street house. Also
illustrative of Paul's financial problems was his apparent need to take
in boarders to supplement the household income. There were four tenants
at 140 Ziegler listed in the 1894-1895 city directory. Three of the
individuals were listed as boarders. They were Edward S. Bundy, waiter;
Jerome Haithcock, laborer; and Lewis Williams, laborer. Mary Moore,
widow of William, also resided at the house, presumably as a boarder
although this was not denoted in the directory. [53]
PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR
(Courtesy of the Library of Congress)
|
While working at the Callahan Bank Building, Paul continued to search
for other employment representative of his education and literary
accomplishments. An opportunity arose for the author in May 1895, when
he began serving as temporary editor of the Indianapolis World,
an African American newspaper. Paul moved to Indianapolis and edited the
paper until July when the newspaper's owner returned from his vacation.
When the position ended, Paul returned to Dayton. [54]
While in Indianapolis, Paul began corresponding with a poet named
Alice Ruth Moore. Paul first wrote Alice on April 17, 1895, to comment
on her poem in an issue of the Boston Monthly Review. Included in the
magazine was a photograph of Alice which, along with her ideas conveyed
in her poem, attracted Paul's attention. [55]
Alice Ruth Moore was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Joseph and
Patricia Wright Moore on July 19, 1875. She attended the New Orleans
public schools and then Straight College, a predominantly African
American two-year teacher's institution, graduating in 1892. At the time
Paul wrote her, she was residing in New Orleans and employed as an
English teacher. Paul and Alice corresponded regularly, and a romance
soon developed between them. [56]
Another opportunity arose for Paul in July 1895, when he received a
letter from H. A. Tobey, Superintendent of the Toledo State Hospital.
Tobey praised Oak and Ivy and sent an order for several more
copies. Tobey became one of Paul's greatest supporters and a life-long
friend. In August 1895, Paul traveled to Toledo to recite for patients
at the Toledo State Hospital and met Tobey. When Tobey first saw Dunbar
as he stepped off the train in Toledo, he commented on the darkness of
his skin. Tobey, questioned by his African American companion who was
also meeting Dunbar, explained that he did not want Dunbar's brilliance
attributed to any Caucasian blood he might possess. [57]
In 1895, Tobey and Charles Thatcher offered to sponsor the
publication of another volume of Dunbar's poetry. The book, Majors and
Minors, contained many new poems and eleven poems originally published
in Oak and Ivy. Released in early 1896, the book was published by
Hadley and Hadley of Toledo. Because Tobey and Thatcher covered all
publishing costs, all the profits from sales went to Paul. [58]
While in Toledo, the poet gave a copy of Majors and Minors to
the actor James A. Herne, who was in the city appearing in the play
Shore Acres. Herne forwarded the copy to William Dean Howells, a leading
national literary critic at the time. In the June 27, 1896, issue of
Harper's Weekly, Howells favorably reviewed Majors and Minors.
Howells found that in Majors and Minors, Paul was the "first man
of his color to study his race objectively, to analyze it himself, and
then to represent it in art as he felt it and found it to be...." While
praising Paul as an African American poet, Howells believed that "if his
Minors had been written by a white man, I should have been struck by
their very uncommon quality; I should have said that they were wonderful
divinations." This positive review made Paul an instant success. [59]
Immediately following the publication of Howell's review, Paul and
his mother traveled out of town for a few days. Upon their return, they
found over two hundred letters stuffed behind the shutters of their
front window. The mailman, not having anywhere to deposit the letters,
placed them behind the shutters while they were away. The letters
contained responses to Howell's review and many requests for copies of
Majors and Minors. [60]
In addition to sponsoring Paul's second book, Tobey and Thatcher
arranged for a professional manager for the poet. Tobey and Thatcher,
with support from Howells, contacted Major James D. Pond, a manager from
New York who represented Mark Twain. Pond agreed to begin representing
Paul when the poet traveled to New York in July. According to Dunbar's
biographer Virginia Cunningham, Paul leased his home on Ziegler Street
for seven dollars a month while he was away from Dayton. At the same
time his mother was in Chicago caring for her son Rob and his family.
[61]
In January 1897, Paul traveled to England for a tour. Prior to
departing New York for England, Paul met Alice Ruth Moore at a farewell
party given for him by Mrs. Victoria Earle Matthews. This was the first
time Alice and Paul met despite their ongoing correspondence and
blossoming romance since 1895. During the evening Paul asked Alice to
marry him, and she accepted. Since there was no time to purchase a ring,
Paul gave Alice a gold ring he wore that was given to him by his mother.
This same ring was later used as Alice's wedding ring. When Paul wrote
to his mother of his engagement, he mentioned that it was something he
had wanted to do for the last two years. [62]
Throughout the spring, while in England, Paul gave performances
almost nightly and established a reputation as a poet throughout the
country. He stayed in England until August when he returned to the
United States and settled in New York. [63]
After returning to New York, Paul traveled to Dayton for a visit and
received a grand welcome. The Philomathean Society at Central High
School held a reception in Paul's honor, and Charlotte Reeve Conover's
literary club invited him to tea. While there, the poet was hesitant to
meet Mrs. Conover's guests, for he had worked as a laborer for many of
them. Upon being introduced, however, he found all the ladies to be warm
and friendly. In the end, the tea proved a much more pleasant experience
than Paul had anticipated. [64]
In October 1897, Paul accepted a position at the Library of Congress
in Washington, D.C., at a salary of $720 per year. Although they were
still engaged to be married, Alice remained in New York where she taught
school. As in the past, Matilda planned to move to Washington with her
son. Following his arrival in Washington, Paul received a letter from
Mother Dunbar saying she would not be able to join him until the Hosley
Trial, [65] in which she was a witness,
concluded. Presumably she departed soon after. [66]
Paul and Alice were married in New York on March 6, 1898, at the home
of African Methodist Episcopal Bishop W.B. Derrick from a local church.
They decided to keep the wedding a secret since Alice's family was not
enthusiastic about the marriage. Although Paul hoped that his mother
would attend his wedding, she was in Washington at the time and was
unable to be at the ceremony. Alice moved to Washington in April when
the newlyweds officially announced their marriage. [67]
On December 31, 1898, Paul resigned from the Library of Congress and,
with Alice as his manager, devoted himself full time to writing and
reciting. This change led to frequent travel. During a trip to New York
City to give a reading in May 1899, Paul collapsed from pneumonia. Alice
rushed to New York to care for him, and his mother stayed in Dayton
where she was living at the time. Matilda, concerned about her son's
illness, kept in constant contact with Alice regarding his condition and
treatment. In one instance, Alice wrote Mother Dunbar that on the advice
of Paul's doctor, she purchased champagne and whiskey for him to drink
to assist in his recovery. Later in May, Matilda traveled to New York to
see Paul. Finding him still very ill, she committed him to a sanitorium.
[68]
After Paul's collapse in New York, he became dependent upon alcohol
to alleviate the pain and discomfort caused by what developed into
tuberculosis. At the time, physicians believed that alcohol was a
treatment for tuberculosis and a relief from the pain. Ironically, the
prescribed cure contributed to Paul's declining health. [69]
Following his physician's advice, Paul-along with Alice and Bud
Burns, Paul's childhood friend-traveled to the Catskill Mountains in
June to aid his recuperation. At a follow up examination upon his
return, Dunbar's doctor recommended a trip to Colorado. After stopping
in Chicago for a family visit, Paul, Alice, and Mother Dunbar arrived in
Denver on September 12, 1899. The Dunbars spent approximately eight
months in Colorado, returning to Washington in April 1900. [70]
PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR GIVING A RECITAL AT THE NATIONAL CASH REGISTER COMPANY.
(Courtesy of NCR Archives at Montgomery County Historical Society)
|
Paul returned to Dayton for a recital on March 2 at Steele High
School. The event was sponsored by the junior class as a fundraiser for
an event for the senior class. Both Orville and his sister Katharine,
along with a large audience, attended the festivities at the Steele High
School auditorium. While the Dayton Daily News ran a story the
following day on the success of the occasion, the March issue of the
High School Times reported that Dunbar was unable to attend the event
due to ill health. In his place, Mr. Ochiltree, who was writing a
biography of Dunbar, gave an address on the poet's life. Following the
entertainment, Paul was to be the guest of honor at a banquet hosted by
the Philomathean Society at the Hotel Atlas. [71]
While Paul was unable to attend the program on March 2, he did speak
at the school four days later. He gave a speech and then recited two
poems. The students and faculty were honored when at the close of his
talk he announced that he would donate a set of his books to be placed
in the school library. [72]
In January 1902, Paul and Alice quarreled, and he left for New York
while she remained in Washington. During their four years of marriage,
the Dunbars experienced various arguments and separations as well as
many happy times. The 1902 separation was final, and it was the last
time the two saw each other. The exact cause and content of the quarrel
is unknown. Following the separation, Paul tried many times to speak or
meet with Alice. He sent her telegrams but never received any answers.
In one instance, she responded "no" when he asked her to meet him at the
train station in Wilmington, Delaware. [73]
After the separation and a stay in New York City, Paul settled in
Chicago where he rented a furnished flat for himself and his mother.
During this time, Paul continued to travel and give recitations,
although disabled at times by tuberculosis. On November 12, 1902, Paul
arrived in Dayton to give a recitation at the First Baptist Church. He
stayed until Christmas time when he returned to Chicago. While in
Dayton, he stayed, at least part of the time, with his uncle, Robert
Burton, at his home at 1608 East Fifth Street. [74]
Paul and Mother Dunbar moved from Chicago to Dayton in the autumn of
1903. While searching for a new home, Paul leased a house at 118
Sycamore Street, two doors away from one of his childhood homes. Ezra
Kuhns, a childhood friend and attorney, assisted Dunbar in locating a
house, and Dunbar purchased lots 12448 and 12449 at 219 North Summit
Street on June 3, 1904, for $4,100. Purchasing the house for his mother,
Paul put the deed in her name. [75]
The two-story single-family brick home with a basement was an example
of a typical turn of the century Midwestern middle class home. The
nineroom house sat lengthwise on lot 12449 with a front porch facing
Summit Street. The property was platted by Samuel Chadwick in 1887 along
with the land in the block encompassed by Summit Street, First Street,
Euclid Avenue, and Monument Avenue. Based on the assessed values of the
house and lot, the house was most likely constructed in 1889 and altered
in 1891. [76]
Prior to Paul's purchase, the property was sold at a sheriff's
auction in January 1903, due to a decision by the Montgomery County
Common Pleas Court. The announcement for the auction described the
property as improved by a two-story brick house of eight rooms with a
summer kitchen and bathroom. The property also contained a frame stable
and all the necessary outbuildings. Paul purchased the property a little
over a year later, and it most likely did not alter much from this
description. [77]
The Dunbar's new home was located in a neighborhood adjacent to the
Dayton Malleable Iron Works. The majority of the residents were employed
by the foundry and many were immigrants from Hungary and Russia. Very
few African Americans lived in the neighborhood and none of their
households were located near the Dunbar's new home. The majority of the
African American households were concentrated several blocks away near
Wolf Creek. [78]
When he returned to Dayton, Paul suffered from an advanced case of
tuberculosis. With the knowledge of his imminent death from the disease,
Paul spent much of his time writing, producing many poems as well as
short stories. Paul named the study in the house on Summit Street his
"loafing holt." When physically able, the poet spent his days in this
room composing and catching up on correspondence. In letters, Paul
mentioned that often he was confined to bed and unable to accomplish
much. [79]
PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR
(Courtesy of the Library of Congress)
|
Two changes occurred in the Dunbar household in 1903. The first was
the addition of a Miss Mundhenk, who volunteered her services as a
secretary for Paul. The only Miss Mundhenk listed in the 1903-1904
Dayton City Directory was Miss Lou Mundhenk, a sales lady, who lived at
16 West Maple. Secondly, a friend brought Paul a collie as a present.
This dog, along with a chicken, was a constant companion for Paul. When
Lida Keck Wiggins, a biographer of Dunbar, visited the house in the
summer of 1904, the collie gave her a joyous greeting. [80]
Bud Burns, a childhood friend and the first African American
physician in Dayton, served as Paul's doctor after he returned to
Dayton. Bud was a frequent visitor at the Dunbar home, both as a friend
and a physician. In July 1904, with Bud's approval, Paul traveled to
Chicago to visit his relatives, and he stayed until sometime in August.
[81]
Throughout his last years in Dayton, Paul fought a constant battle
with the ravages of tuberculosis. In September 1904, his illness grew
very serious, and newspapers throughout the United States reported Paul
was near death. Matilda was not in Dayton at the time, but Bud Burns
wrote her and offered assurances about her son's health. Bud believed
that while gravely ill, Paul was not on his death bed as the news
reported. Paul did recover, but he needed a dryer climate to improve his
health. His doctors urged him to move to California or Arizona instead
of staying in Dayton, but Paul refused. [82]
In December 1904, Dunbar was able to recite at his alma mater, Steele
High School. The high school Dunbar attended, Central, was demolished in
1894, and a new school, Steele, was constructed at the southeast corner
of North Main Street and Monument Avenue. With Steele High School
replacing Central, the alumni of Central were declared and treated as
graduates of Steele. At his performance, Dunbar was heartily welcomed as
an alumnus and honorary member of the Philomathean Society. The society
members greeted Dunbar with the club yell:
Heigh ho! Heigh O! Heigh O!
We yen, heigh O!
For the old Philo!
Heigh ho! Heigh O! Heigh O!
Following the performance, the members of the society adjourned to
the literary hall and heard several more selections from Dunbar. [83]
As 1905 progressed, Paul grew weaker and less able to get out of the
house or even his room. In January he fell and hurt his shoulder. At one
point, Mother Dunbar sent for either of his brothers in Chicago to
assist her in caring for Paul. Neither of them could leave their
families, though, so Matilda continued nursing him with occasional
assistance from a nurse. In many instances Paul would respond positively
to his mother and not the nurse. For instance, she, instead of the
nurse, would often administer his medicine. [84]
In June, Paul's family and friends surprised him with a birthday
party. A friend called in the morning to take Paul for a carriage ride.
When the poet arrived home, his friends greeted him with a surprise
birthday celebration. In Paul's absence, they had decorated the house
with flowers and his chair with purple cloth. The party consisted of
supper and a birthday cake. [85]
Paul experienced a great loss when Bud Burns died on November 19,
1905, after a two week bout with typhoid fever. Bud, serving as both
Paul's doctor and friend, had been a constant companion since Paul's
return to Dayton. Paul never seemed to recover from Bud's death, and a
friend noted that after the funeral Dunbar more often seemed discouraged
in his fight against tuberculosis. [86]
Concerned about Paul's health, Matilda summoned both his physician
and minister on February 9, 1906. Her prediction that her son was near
death proved true. He died at 3:30 that afternoon. Dunbar's body laid in
state at the house on Summit Street on February 11, and the funeral
occurred on the following day at the Eaker Street AME Church. Many of
Paul's friends and local dignitaries participated in the service. H.A.
Tobey read one of the poet's poems and his pallbearers were Ezra Kuhns,
Dr. Walter L. Kline, Albert Lewis, C.D. Higgins, Adam Higgins, Adam
Hickman, and J.E. Deaton. In addition, many local ministers participated
in the ceremony. Reverend W.O. Harper from the Zion Baptist Colored
Church conducted the invocation; Rev. George Bundy, rector of St.
Margaret's Mission, read from the bible; Dr. A.W. Drury, Union Biblical
Seminary, presented the obituary; and Rev. Woodson, Eaker Street AME,
delivered the sermon. Following the funeral, Paul's body was laid in the
vault at Woodland Cemetery, and after the spring thaw, he was interred
in a cemetery plot located near the Wyoming Street entrance. [87]
While Paul and his wife had not seen each other since their
separation, Alice wrote to Bud Burns that she would like to see Paul
before he died. Alice learned of her husband's death from a newspaper
article and wrote to Bud, not knowing he had died, expressing her anger
and disappointment that he did not let her know Paul was near death.
J.H. Finley, the administrator of Bud's estate, wrote Alice to tell her
of Bud's death. In the letter, Finley explained that had he been alive,
Bud would have summoned her to Paul's death bed. [88]
Immediately following his death, discussions began regarding a
memorial to Dunbar. The first proposal was to bury Paul in Library Park,
now Cooper Park in downtown Dayton, instead of Woodland Cemetery.
Matilda denied this request because she wished to be buried next to
Paul, and this would not be possible if he was buried in the park. [89]
Davis W. Clark, a minister from Cincinnati, proposed raising funds to
erect a memorial at Paul's grave. Clark established a committee that
formed The Paul Laurence Dunbar Memorial Association. Judge Dustin, who
had encouraged Paul when he was looking for employment after high
school, was appointed chairman of the local committee. The committee
unveiled the memorial on Paul's birthday in 1909. The memorial consisted
of a boulder with a simple bronze plaque crafted by Tiffany that
contained the first stanza of "A Death Song":
Lay me down beneaf de willers in de grass,
Whah de branch'll go a-singin' as it pass.
An' w'en I's a-layin' low,
I kin hyeah it as it go
Singin', "Sleep, my honey, tek yo' res' at las'."
The dedication included planting a willow tree at the site, an
address by Dr. William Scarborough, President of Wilberforce University,
and conveying the deed to the cemetery lot to Matilda. At the time the
monument was unveiled, Paul's body was exhumed from the original grave
and reinterred in its current location. [90]
The Reverend Edward Everett Hale suggested the monument be simple and
that the balance of the funds raised by The Paul Laurence Dunbar
Memorial Association be used to create a scholarship fund. Each
scholarship awarded totaled $2,000. The first $1,000 given by the
committee and the second by any school guaranteeing the scholarship.
Following the establishment of the scholarship, Mother Dunbar suggested
that her grandson, Paul Laurence Dunbar Murphy, Robert Murphy's child,
be the first recipient. [91]
After Paul's death, Matilda continued to live at 219 North Summit.
Visitors often came to the house to speak to Matilda about her son. She
was a gracious hostess who never seemed to tire of talking about the
poet. Dayton resident Ozell Bradford remembered, "She always welcomed
you into her home, treated you beautifully, everything was nice. And of
course she always talked about Paul." Several biographers of Dunbar
interviewed Mother Dunbar and also found her very willing to share
memories of her son. In his master's thesis, J. Cortex Cooper related
Matilda's generous welcome into her home and the opportunity to visit
Paul's library. [92]
Throughout the rest of Matilda's life, the citizens of Dayton offered
friendship and financial support to her. As Mother Dunbar aged, she
became hard of hearing, blind, and feeble. Because she was unable to
take care of herself, many individuals offered support. Neighbors cooked
her meals and assisted with yard work, and neighborhood boys tended her
fires. Also, Matilda's sister, Rebecca, would travel from east Dayton
each morning to care for the house, do the grocery shopping, and attend
to her sister's needs. On April 23, 1926, the Progressive Mothers' Club
hosted a tea at Edith McClure Patterson's home to raise money for Mother
Dunbar. The funds were incorporated into an existing trust developed to
assist Matilda with living expenses. The club hoped to use the money to
hire a companion for Matilda, who lived alone at the house on Summit
Street. [93]
Matilda Dunbar died on February 24, 1934, and she was buried next to
her son in Woodland Cemetery. In her will Matilda bequeathed the home at
219 North Summit Street to her son, and Paul's half brother, Robert
Murphy. She requested that Paul's library be preserved with all the
contents remaining in place as a memorial to him. In response to
Matilda's wishes that the home remain a memorial to her son, the state
legislature approved a bill in 1936 that provided for the acquisition of
the home at 219 North Summit Street. The state placed the house under
the care of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society (now
the Ohio Historical Society) to establish a memorial and museum to
commemorate the life and work of Paul. [94]
In the years following Paul's death, Matilda maintained the condition
of the house. At her death, the house appeared as it did when Paul was
alive. Throughout the years, Matilda often opened the house to visitors
interested in seeing the poet's home. At one time, a coin box was placed
in Paul's study to allow visitors to donate, and in 1924 Mother Dunbar
established a guest book. The tradition of opening the house to visitors
continued under the auspices of the Ohio Historical Society when it
dedicated the museum on June 27, 1938. [95]
In his many writings, from poems and novels to plays, Paul portrayed
African American life in the United States and contributed to the
growing social consciousness of the black population. Throughout his
lifetime Paul wrote voraciously and the full extent of his output is
still not known or published. In his lifetime, the poet became a
successful African American writer who was revered throughout the world.
He symbolized opportunity to African Americans who struggled to avoid
the industrial arts training that was prevalent for his race as well as
to all those who struggled to achieve their dreams despite seemingly
insurmountable obstacles.
Symbolizing his success are the many schools throughout the United
States named after Dunbar. This memorialization of Paul through the
naming of the schools promoted many of the positive effects of Paul's
life. In 1953, Geneva C. Turner in The Negro History Bulletin, wrote
that students at Dunbar schools could learn two things from the poet's
life. The first was to use any leisure time wisely and profitably. By
doing this, students would be a benefit instead of a detriment to the
community. The second was to follow Paul's example and pursue any
creative urges. Students should use the poet's success in a field
previously closed to African Americans as incentive to follow their
dreams instead of what was prescribed by society. [96]
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