Five Views: An Ethnic Historic Site Survey for California

Contents

Introduction
Immigration
Settlement
Organizations/Religion
Discrimination
World War II Incarceration

Historic Sites
Selected References

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Underlined sites are links to more detailed reports.

In several parts of California, entire communities of Japanese emerged. These communities focused on a common economic pursuit, generally agriculture or fishing. Some communities, such as Bowles and Yamato Colony, did not have the usual businesses or commercial activities of nihonmachi. Community members therefore had to travel to other nihonmachi, or do business with White merchants in nearby towns. These communities have similarities, but each is unique in some respects.

Facilities for Children

Several institutions emerged in the Japanese community expressly to meet the needs of children. By the 1930s, Japanese-language schools could be found in almost any community in California where Japanese lived. Often, they were operated through churches or the Japanese Association. A revival of Japanese language schools occurred during the 1950s and 1960s, and a few survive today. One of these is the Concord Nippongo Cakko in Contra Costa County.

Facilities providing care for children who were orphaned, or whose parents could not otherwise provide for them, also emerged. One of these was the Shonien in Los Angeles.

Labor

A need by agricultural interests for laborers in Hawaii and on the American mainland provided the impetus for early Japanese immigration to the United States. Recruitment and enticement resulted in large numbers of immigrants from Japan in the early part of the 20th century.

Once in the United States, immigrants traveled throughout California, working in various occupations — agriculture, fishing, land reclamation, domestic services, commercial enterprises, railroads, and oil fields. Many of the earliest immigrants proceeded to establish their own businesses, farms, cooperatives, and other enterprises. A large minority of these single men, however, continued to work as laborers, and constituted the backbone of agricultural workers through the mid-1900s, along with Chicanos and Filipinos.

Churches

Churches, both Buddhist and Christian, were the centers of Japanese communities for many years. They provided not only religious services but also social activities, athletic organizations, and Japanese language classes for the community. Churches were established in almost every Japanese community in the state. Two are included as examples. The Buddhist Church of Bakersfield is the oldest Japanese Buddhist church building constructed by its congre gation still used for religious services. The Union Church of Los Angeles played a particularly significant role for the Japanese community of Southern California.

Health Care

Facilities to provide health care became a priority for Japanese Americans in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Babies were being born, occasional epidemics affected large segments of the community, and the working and living conditions of the times required midwives, doctors, and nurses. In addition, medical practitioners needed structures where they could provide medical service.

Japanese hospitals were constructed in several locations where large numbers of issei settled. The Okonogi Byoin in the City of Fresno was probably the first Japanese hospital in the state. Established by Dr. Bunkuro Okonogi, the Okonogi Byoin was in operation by about 1901, and grew progressively larger and more modern until Dr. Okonogi's death in 1950. The San Jose Kumamoto Kenjkinkai organized its community hospital, Kuwabara Hospital, in 1910; the structure is still used by the community today. The Nihon Byoin in Fresno was organized around 1913, and currently houses several businesses. The Nippon Hospital in Stockton was established in 1919.

Recreation

Little is written about recreational facilities and opportunities for Japanese immigrants. Because of the responsibilities of work, family, and community priorities, relatively small amounts of time were spent in recreational pursuits. Recitals, plays, singing, and special programs were often performed at churches and community centers. Casual recreational activities included pool, baseball, and gambling. The San Jose Japanese Theater and White Point were developed specifically as recreational sites for the Japanese community.

Discriminatory Practices

Japanese Americans have suffered discriminatory practices resulting from official legislative actions such as the Alien Land Laws, and from informal regulations such as restrictive housing covenants. The most publicized discriminatory action was internment of approximately 120,000 West Coast Japanese Americans in concentration camps during World War II.

Alien Land Law

From 1909 onward, the California legislature considered bills designed to control leasing and ownership of land by Asians. These laws were directed toward Japanese, the primary "aliens ineligible for U.S. citizenship" who were buying property at this time. Agricultural interests wanted to maintain them as a labor force. White supremacist and patriotic groups were determined to prevent nonwhite groups from becoming permanent and participating members of California society.

On May 19, 1913, Governor Hiram Johnson signed the Webb-Hartley Law (more popularly known as the Alien Land Law of 1913). It prevented "aliens ineligible to citizenship" from owning or acquiring land, and placed limitations on leasing and collective ownership of property. The laws of 1919 and 1920 more stringently restricted ownership and leasing of land. Although the California Supreme Court declared the Alien Land Law unconstitutional in 1952, the legislation remained on the books until November 4, 1956 when California voters repealed the law.

The following examples are just three of the many cases in which Japanese Americans incurred legal fees and harassment by government officials as a result of being prosecuted for violations of the Alien Land Law.

• Harada House
• Oyama Property
• Sei Fujii Property

NEXT> Selected References

Last Modified: Wed, Nov 17 2004 10:00:00 pm PDT
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