Paterson's was founded upon the energy of the Great Falls - today, within a landmark building directly beside them, they still produce power
VIP Terry McKenna
Paterson's growth was directly fed by the raceway system. Dropping over three tiers allowed maximum use of the water - the different shades of blue corresponding with elevation, from high above the falls (at left) to low below (at right).
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER)
Power for Production
When Alexander Hamilton and the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures (S.U.M.) set out to build the first planned industrial city in America in 1792, the key factor was waterpower. Paterson’s industries clustered around the raceway system built by the company, harnessing the potential energy of the Passaic River and the 77-foot drop in elevation with a three-tiered, human built network of artificial channels. Water, diverted above the great falls, flowed through this system, and drove water wheels, and later, turbines. The mechanical, kinetic energy was connected to machines throughout each factory by a network of shafts, gears, belts, and pulleys.
The abundant waterpower attracted hundreds of companies, each of which wanted the maximum amount of power possible. Despite constant improvements, by 1838 the system as built could no longer expand, and in short order demand outstripped supply. Seasonal flow dropped in the drier summer months, and as water companies began using the Passaic River to supply communities with drinking and sanitation services its level was drawn down further.
Meanwhile, as new power sources rolled out of Paterson’s factories – steam engines, electric generators and motors, and eventually internal combustion engines – industries had less reason to rely upon the overtaxed raceway. Even the factories along the raceway began to augment their capacity, installing steam engines to maintain operations during low water. The S.U.M. had a problem: how to stay in business, having shifted from direct manufacturing to real estate and power supply, all while managing the raceway that no longer held a monopoly on powering industry.
The 1835 "new" dam was one of many built to store & divert the Passaic River's power into channels like the later hydroelectric intake - ownership & use of water in the 1700s birthed the legal, economic, & environmental conflicts grappled with today
VIP Terry McKenna
Under Pressure
When the S.U.M. was founded in 1791, it was established as a joint-stock company with unprecedented legal authority to carry out its charter. This included nearly complete control of the land around the Great Falls and almost all of the water rights of northern New Jersey above the falls. After failing to generate desired income operating factories itself, the S.U.M. shifted, operating as a real estate company, leasing both land and water by the square foot to industries along the raceways.
The water rights to the Passaic were a valuable and profitable asset, especially as real estate income was limited once all the factory sites along the raceway were filled with buildings by the 1850s. However, as others recognized the value and staked their own claim the S.U.M.'s monopoly came under attack and economic pressure.
Competition from other businesses, technological advancement, and continued overuse of the river soon reached a breaking point - while the S.U.M. had the oldest legal claim to the Passaic, it did not have the financial resources or political support to maintain its rights. Low water in the 1880s led many factories to loudly complain and even refuse payment when they were not supplied with their promised volume of water. The S.U.M. ended up negotiating leases with water companies even as other firms formed a “water pool” to gain control of river’s water rights. The S.U.M. joined the pool in the late 1880s, which was formalized as the New Jersey General Security Company (NJGSC) in 1894. These trusts bought up what had once been seen as something for all, as resources were commodified.
The construction of the hydroelectric plant required diverting the river & blasting through the basalt cliffside
Paterson Museum
Harnessing Hydropower
Edmund Gardner, Vice President of the NJGSC, wrote to S.U.M. hydraulic engineer John H. Cook about increasing efficiency at the Great Falls during this time. The solution he proposed was to generate electrical energy, which could reach far beyond the raceway via a network of wires. Industries would still pay the S.U.M. for power, which could be centrally generated in one location and take full advantage of the height of the falls. Between 1899 and 1911 the S.U.M. wrestled with the decision to invest in a power plant. It was a considerable risk – large amounts of financial capital would be needed, with no promise of returns. In 1911, Cook and the S.U.M. decided to invest. From 1912 – 1914, a hydroelectric power plant was constructed beside the falls. The river was diverted at its base by cofferdams to build the foundation, and large sections of the basalt cliff were excavated to install four massive penstocks – feeder tubes to drop water into turbines housed inside the building itself, a steel framed shell with brick walls forming a single, massive room for the turbines and generators.
At the upper forebay, water is drawn through trash racks which must be regularly cleaned to maintain flow
NPS
At the top of the falls, an opening was cut just adjacent to the new 1835 dam. This “forebay” draws water into the plant across an angled surface lined with rows of metal grates. These “trash racks” prevent sticks, leaves, and debris from being sucked into the plant where they could damage the turbines. Control gates at the top and bottom of the plant adjust water flow, ensuring a steady supply of water that can be easily adjusted to meet demand. Originally, the dam had "flashboards" - metal pins at the lip. Water pressure pushed wooden planks against them, raising the water level even higher and acting as a "battery." In the spring, heavy floods pushed with such force that the pins would bend, releasing the boards and the water automatically. The remains of such pins from another dam can be seen at the top of the falls.
Today, a mechanical scoop works like a large gutter cleaner, reaching to the bottom of the trash rack to pull debris up and off to easily clean them and maintain flow; a large concrete beam at the river's average height prevents the largest tree limbs and debris from hitting the racks. A diversionary “chute” allows fish from upstream to bypass the turbines without harm.
The main structure of the hydroelectric plant is the turbine hall, seen here shortly after completion with its first horizontal turbine/generator sets
Paterson Museum
The main structure of the building, the turbine hall, was built as a single room to house the four turbines and generators. Paired as sets, each directed water through the penstocks into horizontal shaft Francis turbines built by S. Morgan Smith. More efficient than water wheels, turbines can operate while submerged and are less effected by changes in water volume, reaching efficiencies over 90%. "Wicket gates" act as guide vanes to direct the water from the surrounding scroll case onto the runner. By opening or closing them, more or less water spins the blades, controlling speed and power.
Generators take the spinning output and rotate a piece of metal wrapped in wire called a "rotor" within a stationary ring of wire windings called a "stator." The rotating magnetic field produces electromagnetic energy. The plant as built had four 2400-volt, sixty-cycle alternating Westinghouse generators. Alternating current can be changed in voltage with transformers much easier than direct current, allowing for less energy loss over long distances; "sixty-cycles" means the current "flips" sixty times per second.
The S.U.M. constructed a matching steam plant at the falls in 1915 to generate additional energy for mills & industries. Demolished in 1962, the plant's foundations are part of Overlook Park.
Paterson Museum
Secondary Steam, Success & Shutdown
Recognizing that seasonal changes in river volume would prevent the plant from operating at peak capacity year-round, the S.U.M. also constructed a steam plant. Burning coal to heat water in boilers, the plant generated electricity and fed steam through a network of 10 inch pipes built along the raceways. Like the electricity and waterpower before it, this service was metered and charged as a utility, delivered 125 pounds per square inch (PSI) and throttled to 85 psi at each factory for heating and chemical processing.
In 1915 the S.U.M. charged 80 – 90 cents per 1,000 pounds of steam - cheaper than what mills spent generating their own. Cheaper electricity and steam helped the S.U.M. wean mills off of the raceway, opening up areas previously undevelopable for industry for additional profit. It also kept mills subscribed to the S.U.M.'s energy leases; by 1915 most factories had supplimented their operations with steam engines, using the raceway for only 25% of their energy demands. By supplying energy at lower cost, the S.U.M. remained a desireable service.
Despite these efforts, the S.U.M. struggled financially in its later years. While buoyed by the surge in demand during World War II, the preceding Great Depression and the shuttering of many industries hit the firm hard, as companies using the S.U.M.’s power closed - some went bankrupt while still owing thousands of dollars in utilities. In 1945 the S.U.M. sold its charter and property to the City of Paterson; the Public Service Corporation (PSC), renamed Public Service Electric & Gas (PSE&G) in 1948, continued to operate the plant. As more industries closed, it became less and less cost-effective to run the expensive, polluting steam plant. Damaged by lightning in 1958, it was torn down in 1962.
With the rededication of the Great Falls Hydroelectric Station in 1987, Paterson continues to utilize the falls for power
NPS
Restoration & Renewed Operation
The hydroelectric plant continued generating until January 1969, when it was decommissioned following a flood. Despite improvements in the 1940s-60s, years of operation left the equipment antiquated and worn, and its small size made it less economical to upgrade than large plants elsewhere. However, it would not meet the same fate as the steam plant.
In 1971 the powerhouse was declared a National Historic Landmark, and new, yet familiar demands spurred renovation. The oil crisis of the 1970s reinforced Alexander Hamilton’s original argument for domestic manufacturing: when other nations control the critical resources needed for production, high prices and scarcity could severely affect the United States. Pushes to expand domestic energy production led to the renovation and recommissioning of the powerplant in 1986 – three of the four turbines were replaced with more efficient, modern equipment (the fourth is preserved on-site, inoperable). The plant reopened on December 30, 1986, and was formally rededicated on June 29th, 1987. The Paterson Municipal Utilities Authority, founded in 1980 to repair and run the plant, partnered with the Great Falls Hydroelectric Company to privately raise the $14.5 million required for the renovation.
While smaller & with a steeper angled intake than shown here, the principles behind the Great Falls hydroplant are the same: water at a higher level is directed into a turbine, spinning a generator to produce electricity
Manitoba Hydro, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Modern Efficiency, Historic Operations
Today, most visitors are unaware that the powerhouse is still active. The loud whirr of the turbines and hum of transformers is muffled by the brick walls, and without pollution no smoke hints at industrial operations. A private company operates the plant under contract, selling the electricity to PSE&G. Each of the modern vertical Kaplan turbines can draw 710 cubic feet per second of water, or 1,377 million gallons per day. The 8.5-foot diameter penstocks feed water at 12.5 feet per second, or 8.5 miles per hour (mph), spinning the adjustable five-blade turbines and generators at 400 revolutions per minute (rpm).
Producing 125 percent more electricity than the original turbines, the plant generates 30 million kilowatt-hours a year and 10,950 kilowatts at peak – enough renewable, clean energy to power about 11,000 homes a year. The load varies with demand and seasonal water flow; during the summer droughts the plant operates fewer turbines and produces less power. The alterable modern turbine blades and wicket gates allow for more consistent operation in variable flow conditions than the original equipment.
While still in use, today the hydroplant operates in harmony with the Great Falls, & it is rare to see them run dry
Paterson Museum
Because the falls are a designated National Natural Landmark, the water normally cannot be completely diverted. This ensures the continuing use of the falls for energy is balanced with the natural, ecological, and scenic uses of the falls. However, on rare occasions the plant is utilized to “shut off” the waterfall, allowing study of the falls themselves and cleanup crews to remove debris from the top and bottom of the river.
The continued use of the Great Falls for energy production demonstrates the soundness of the vision of Alexander Hamilton and the S.U.M. As the effects of climate change increase, the use of the falls for renewable energy offers an example of the value of non-polluting energy production, and the challenges in keeping them sustainable. Water is the most powerful force on earth, but also the most precious – freshwater being a fraction of the total water on earth, it is required for life. The powerhouse on the precipice of the Great Falls stands as an operating legacy of the human struggle to utilize and manage this resource for a wide variety of uses.
