Yellowstone Historic Resource Study The History of the Construction of the Road System in Yellowstone National Park, 1872-1966

In all the work in the National Parks, the Bureau of Public Roads has been guided in its design by the Landscape Division of the National Park Service. Landscaping of highways is comparatively new in America, and the bureau has been fortunate indeed in having the effective cooperation of a splendid group of landscape architects. The landscaping of the National Park Highway System has as its essential aims the diminution of scars; the introduction of certain elements of grace in alignment; the use of architectually pleasing structures; and the protection of trees, shrubs, and other natural growths from destruction and damage during construction.

L. I. Hewes, Deputy Chief Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads, 1932

Roger Toll replaced Albright as superintendent of Yellowstone in February 1929. No major road projects were begun during his first year, except one 6-mile section between the East Entrance and Sylvan Lake. All other ongoing road projects were either completed or scheduled for completion before the 1929 season was over. The roadside cleanup project continued with Rockefeller funding the completion of 45 miles and the remaining 61 miles funded by the National Park Service. Between 1926 and 1929, some 300 of the 350 wooden sprinkling tanks had been removed along with other related sprinkling structures. [308] Construction of buildings tied to road projects included the 3-lane checking station at the East Entrance, a new road camp at Lake (messhouse, 20-man bunkhouse and 3-stall stable), and a stable each at Canyon and West Thumb. [309]

On the national level, Director Albright called the building of highways "the most important construction project before the National Park Service." Several very interesting and challenging projects were being undertaken in other national parks—the Zion-Mount Carmel Road in Zion National Park, the Transmountain Road in Glacier National Park, the Generals' Highway in Sequoia National Park, the Trail Ridge Road in Rocky Mountain National Park, and a road opening up the Yakima Park section in Mount Rainier National Park. [310]

Albright's experience with roadside cleanup projects in Yellowstone, Lafayette (Acadia), and Crater Lake National Parks led him to become a spokesman for roadside improvement and scenic reserves across the country. In an article he wrote for the Saturday Evening Post, he described the efforts in California, Yellowstone National Park, and along the Columbia River Highway as good examples. He spoke of the stiff regulations imposed within the boundaries of the national parks regarding signs and the despoliation of the scenery. He commended the citizens of Cody, Wyoming, and Gallatin County, Montana, for their agreements to ban billboards and "roadside nuisances" along the approach roads. The town of Cody set aside a hill, known as "Signboard Heaven" to accommodate those who wanted to advertise, thus leaving the last 60 miles to the East Entrance free from clutter. The county commissioners in Gallatin County appealed to the private landowners to refrain from spoiling the Gallatin Highway leading into West Yellowstone and similar efforts were made along the highway from Livingston to Gardiner. In addition to billboards and signs, unsightly wayside stands marred the nation's roads during this period. Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., joined her husband in his crusade to cleanup roadways and roadsides, particularly those leading into national parks. She offered a very generous annual prize for the best designed wayside stand. She also organized a planning board of architects who would furnish designs for roadside stands free of charge. Throughout the mid-to-late 1920's, the Rockefeller family had a tremendous impact on the appearance of the nation's roads and landscape architecture in general. [311]

Reconnaissance survey work over the entire road system kept the Bureau of Public Roads busy during the early 1930's. In order to keep up with this planning effort and also with the National Park Service's new six-year plans, the Civil Engineering Division and the Landscape Architecture Division were both expanded. A second office, the Eastern Branch of the Landscape Architecture Division, was opened in Yorktown, Virginia.

On a national level, the 1932 Bureau of Public Roads program was involved in 44 major projects estimated at a cost of $8,400,000 and the National Park Service supervised 82 minor roads and trails projects, for an estimated $962,000. The minor roads and trails work were generally one-year projects completed by day labor and paid for with cash allotments. [312]

The Landscape Architecture Division designed "an unprecedented number of bridges" for the Bureau of Public Roads projects and experimented with staining several concrete bridges to "harmonize with the predominate color of the surrounding landscape." In addition to bridge designs, the Bureau began to incorporate the National Park Service landscape architects plans for parking areas, sidewalks, and curbs. The Division expended major effort in designing bridges, gateways, and other buildings for particular sites. During 1931, standardized specifications for rounding and flattening of slopes, and methods of blasting and removal of form marks were adopted. Inspection by National Park Service landscape architects resulted in borrow pits, quarries, and abandoned road camps being left in better condition. [313]

In Yellowstone, plans were drawn for the Tower Falls Bridge, Seven Mile Bridge, Gardner River Bridge, six bridges on the Red Lodge to Cooke City Road, the Pilgrim Creek Bridge and the North Entrance checking station. Funds for the Red Lodge to Cooke City Road and the Moran to South Boundary Road were provided by special legislation, the Leavitt Approach Road Act of January 31, 1931, which authorized:

The allocation of not to exceed $1,500,000 of the national park and monument road and trail funds for each of the fiscal years 1932 and 1933 for construction, reconstruction, and improvement of national park and monument approach roads which cross lands wholly or to the extent of . . . owned by the United States.

As the primary value of these roads is to carry national park travel, and as they cross lands wholly owned by the United States, the cost of construction is properly being borne 100 percent by the Federal Government. The expedition of the construction of these approach roads will result in securing in the shortest possible time, the maximum usefulness of the road systems being constructed in the park. [314]

This act also funded the construction of the connecting road between General Grant and Sequoia and the Desert View to Cameron approach road to the Grand Canyon. [315]

During the summer of 1931, the park road crews, some of the Bureau of Public Road and contractor's crews were pulled off road projects to assist in fighting forest fires in Yellowstone. Even though the fires caused a slowdown, the Bureau accomplished more in Yellowstone that year than ever before. The Lewis River to West Thumb, the West Thumb to Arnica Creek, the Bridge Bay to Mud Volcano, which included the Fishing Bridge and Lake Junction layouts, and the Mount Washburn loop roads were completed. Different stages of construction projects were carried out on the East Entrance Road, Canyon to Tower Road, Obsidian to Firehole Road, Tower Falls to Blacktail Deer Creek, Mammoth to Obsidian and the Moran to the South Boundary Road. [316]

Albright surveyed the Yellowstone road work in September of 1931. He was very pleased with the progress of the interbureau relationship and remarked that "I had never seen the roads in better condition or the park in general in better trim than it is at the present time, nor can I recall that it ever had a more enthusiastic and capable group of employees than the permanent organization now in charge of its destinies." [317]

While complimenting the appearance and condition of the roads, he also extolled the policy of keeping as much of Yellowstone "in primitive" conditions or "wilderness unspoiled by roads, in many cases untouched even by man-made trails, the paths of animals having been cut out to provide routes for patrolling rangers." [318]

Despite the Depression, travel to the National Parks increased by 5.9 percent during 1931. Albright described the parks as being "a strong influence for stabilization and good citizenship." He felt "the true value of the parks was: "clearly shown . . . by the fact that in a time of anxiety and restlessness, they (the parks) were immensely useful to large numbers of our people." [319]

Visitors praised the condition of the park's roads. By this time, the Grand Loop had received the palliative oiling treatment, thereby abating the dust nuisance. [320]

In July of 1932, the American Society of Civil Engineers met in Yellowstone. Frank Kittredge, the chief engineer of the National Park Service, delivered a paper entitled "Preserving a Valuable Heritage." He explained to the gathering that the act creating the National Park Service, ". . . conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life [sic] therein; and, to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such a manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations," presented a tremendous challenge to the Engineering and Landscape Architecture Divisions of the National Park Service. He said the government term "improvements" (construction projects of all types) could be a misnomer as many would feel "that Nature's work cannot be improved, and that anything man can do is destructive and hence not an improvement." In order to minimize the effects on the Park, the road work was carefully planned. Kittredge felt that "a bridge will always look like a bridge no matter what attempts are made to blend it into the surroundings or how much money is expended on it." Thus conceding this fact, he built many concrete and steel bridges throughout the system. However, the landscape architects did promote the use of masonry arch bridges that blended with the landscape, as the most desirable type, particularly where "ruggedness of landscape is the rule."

Kittredge drew the participants' attention to the fact that many "excellent bridges" had been built in Yellowstone, including two that were at that time considered outstanding engineering achievements—the concrete viaduct through the Golden Gate and the Melan-type arch bridge sited 1,000 feet above the Upper Falls of the Yellowstone near the Grand Canyon. Both of these achievements were the work of Hiram Chittenden, U. S. Army Corps of Engineer officer. Kittredge believed that the "chief value of the parks to the nation is in their inspiration and educational features, and this fact must be recognized in making all improvements." [321]

Kittredge was followed by Dr. L. I. Hewes, deputy chief engineer of the Bureau of Public Roads, who delivered a paper entitled "America's Park Highways." He stated that with very few exceptions, such as the 50 miles between Williams, Arizona, and the south boundary of the Grand Canyon, most park roads and approach roads were in very rugged terrain and required heavy mountain-type construction. As a general rule, the construction of the park roads was to a high standard of cross-section, alignment, and grade. Surfacing was to an 18-foot minimum, and in some cases, 20 feet. The sections incut were 27 feet wide and the ruling grades were generally 5 percent. However, some areas had a 6 percent grade and a few required a grade of 7 percent. Dr. Hewes pointed out that every curve received careful attention and individual design. Recognizing that park roads were not primarily built for thoroughfares but for recreation, the engineers still had to consider safety and peak traffic load. Their philosophy also included the premise that "park highways now under construction are in their final location."

Dr. Hewes explained that in the construction of curves, "operating safety is never sacrificed to landscaping effects." The engineer introduced "long, carefully compounded curves with gradual changes in length of radii" to eliminate "broken back" curves. He said that all of the curves were designed to have "grade compensation, which is increased when the ruling grade is 5 percent or more." He told the group that grading and surfacing costs were averaging $40,000 per mile and that plans were to use some type of bituminous topping on a minimum width of 20 feet. Saying that it was too early to evaluate the ultimate life of the surfacing (usually 3 inches of fine crushed material laid over 4 inches of fine crushed stone, rolled into place), they had found the finish provided "excellent riding qualities" and the advantage of "the ease which it can be scarified and relaid" if necessary.

One of the other recent changes in park road construction had been the elimination of the steep, narrow ditches and the substitution of "a broad shallow type, which will be much safer for traffic and serve to increase the total driving width of the highway."

In order to minimize the scars in cuts and fills on park roads, engineers employed the more expensive techniques of "judicious use of riprapped embankments, and less frequently, by the building of retaining walls and careful design of the grade to permit end-hauling to invisible gullies."

Dr. Hewes also spoke of landscape considerations in bridge and culvert design, stating that wherever possible, arch bridges with concrete barrels and natural stone masonry were built. Because of the extra consideration, use of arch bridge designs had been extended to crossings for which they would have hitherto been considered inadvisable, or in some cases, impossible. He cited the Mount Vernon Memorial Highway bridges as examples of some of those considered inadvisable, since they were constructed on silt. In addition to bridge design, he elaborated on the architectural details of culverts, stone walls, and pullouts, citing the preferred use of stone culverts or the construction of stone masonry head walls with pipe culverts and the use of cement rubble masonry guard walls.

In concluding his talk, he told the engineers that of the 1,800 miles in the National Park road system, approximately one-third of them had been completed for an approximate cost of $25 million. More importantly though, Dr. Hewes felt that the National Park Service philosophy of what a park road should be had permeated to their other work beyond park boundaries and to many of the western states' highway departments. [322]

Economic hard times continued to plague the country, but in 1933 the automobile travel to Yellowstone again increased. Even though visitation increased, concession owners suffered heavy financial losses because tourists did not stay in the hotels or use the dining rooms. Showing a preference for camping, travelers also shortened their length of stay in the Park. Park employees, including the per diem employees, also were hit by the governmentwide 15 percent cut in pay as of April 1, 1933, under the provisions of the "Act to Maintain the Credit of the United States Government."

However, President Roosevelt's newly organized government relief programs benefited the parks in many ways, including funding for different types of road projects. The local road contractors used funds from the Emergency Conservation Work Program to employ men from outside the Park to work on Yellowstone roads during 1933. Two of the road projects, the Tower Falls-Mammoth Hot Springs and the Golden Gate, provided employment well into the winter for many local men. The Golden Gate to Obsidian Cliff grading project was unusual in the history of road construction in Yellowstone, in that it was underway during the winter months with only a two week delay due to severe weather.

Under the Public Works Program of the National Industrial Recovery Act, Yellowstone received approximately one-fifth of the $16 million allotted to the entire park system for road and trail construction work. Yellowstone's funding included $2,531,400 for major projects, $102,050 for minor projects and $736,000 for approach road work. The Bureau of Public Roads awarded four projects from this funding—surfacing of the sections from Tower Falls to Lava Creek and from Mammoth Hot Springs to Obsidian Cliff, grading the Bridge Bay to Yellowstone rapids and from Lewis River to Arnica Creek sections. This allotment to Yellowstone, the single highest amount of money received for road construction in the Park's 61-year history, was one of Horace Albright's last official actions as Director of the National Park Service.

President Roosevelt's most popular relief programs, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), was authorized by an Act of Congress dated March 31, 1933. Four camps were set up in the Park during June 1933. The CCC projects were telephone line repair, bank erosion control, roadside cleanup, cleanup of old dump grounds, campground cleanup, truck trail construction, fire protection, trail construction, landscaping, range improvements, reforestation, insect control, old fence removal, repair and building of new fences, removal of old buildings and fire suppression work. During the year, the Bureau of Public Roads completed or nearly completed the grading between Tower Junction and Lava Creek, surfacing and oiling of the Canyon to Tower Junction section, grading of the Terraces to Obsidian Cliff section.

Yellowstone's maintenance staff now maintained 361 miles of road, 310 miles inside the Park. About 120 miles of the Grand Loop system had been built to a highway standard, 74 miles of which were paved with crushed rock or gravel and treated with asphaltic road oil. All road sections in the Park, except the Cooke City Road, were given an annual oil treatment for dust prevention and maintenance for better surface conditions. The maintenance crews now operated out of 15 carefully selected locations in the park. The crews varied in numbers from 6 to 15 men. [323]

During the summer of 1933, a change was made in road finishing. The new Director of the National Park Service Arno Cammerer, requested that the practice of painting traffic stripes on curves be discontinued on all national park roads. Feeling that the center stripes had "an undesirable appearance in a national park," he recommended that the existing stripes be allowed to wear out and not be replaced. [324]

The Bureau of Public Roads was very busy during 1934 awarding contracts for Yellowstone projects, for which nearly $3 million of Public Works Program funds had been allocated. The major focus was the improvement of the Grand Loop and the worst sections of entrance roads. Superintendent Toll felt that within two or three years, the Yellowstone roads would meet modern standards and be "comparable to any of the highways found in the surrounding states." Park visitors complimented the "marked improvements" to Yellowstone's roads, particularly the highway through the Golden Gate. [325]

Two more CCC camps were set up during 1934, bringing the total to six camps with 225 men working on 20 different types of projects. Civilian Conservation Corps road projects during 1934, for the most part, were related to roadside cleanup in the Canyon to Norris section, and along the Gibbon River just above the Virginia Meadows and bank slope treatment and road obliteration near Artist and Inspiration Points. [326] One other roadside cleanup project completed before the summer's end, was the removal of old bridge abutments and ruins at Grayling Creek on the Gallatin Road. Temporary Landscape Architect Walter Popham, felt that "considerable change had been effected in the appearance of the highway." [327]

In a November, 1934 letter to Chief Landscape Architect Thomas Vint, Superintendent Toll reiterated the goal of building roads that "will not have to be rebuilt." He called the "reconstruction of roads, and the unsightly abandoned roads . . . most detrimental to the landscape." He wrote of the demands that heavier traffic and larger vehicle size had on park road designs:

The size of bus units and trailers is steadily increasing. In passenger cars, the normal operating speed has increased greatly during the last decade. State highways are now built under and on better alignment than formerly. We do not aim to build speedways, but if we did not build roads that are comparable with highways throughout the country, the chances are that the roads will be rebuilt before [sic] long. To avoid that possibility is of the greatest importance. The loop road has two standards of width. As I recall it, the shoulder to shoulder width is 26 feet on some sections and 28 feet on other sections. . . . it would seem to be a serious mistake to adopt any standard of width or alignment less than the rest of the loop road. We would be forfeiting the considerable sum that has been spent to secure these standards. . . . If we do not build to acceptable standards, we will not get full value for the money spent. [328]

Travel to the Park (260,775 visitors) exceeded the pre-Depression high level and increased the 1933 figures by 61 percent. Maintenance crews increased the number of miles maintained by 21 miles, for a total of 382 miles, 328 of which were within the park boundaries. [329] There were now 15 road camps within the Park and one for each of the approach roads.

A major reconstruction of 12 miles of the East Entrance approach road was underway during 1935. In addition, major road reconstruction of 165 miles within the park encompassed several stages of construction—80 miles of grading, 29 miles of surfacing, and 56 miles of oil mat surfacing.

The opening of the Red Lodge to Cooke City or Northeast approach road necessitated the construction of a proper checking station at the Cooke City entrance to the Park. The log station, constructed with Public Works Allotments funds, replaced older structures on the nearby abandoned road. [330] Other Public Works road-related projects conducted during 1935 were improvements to the Lake Shore section of the West Thumb to Lake Road, construction of two miles of 22-foot-width roads into the Black Sand Basin, three miles in the Firehole Lake area, and a spur road near Sheepeater Cliff. These new road sections replaced dirt roads.

The CCC road-related work in Yellowstone continued to be mostly roadside cleanup and some landscaping activities. Aesthetics remained a major concern of Superintendent Toll. He requested the Bureau of Public Roads include a provision (in all road construction or surfacing contracts), for removing conspicuous stumps that were in view of the roadways. He definitely wanted them removed at least up to 50 feet from the road's edge. He also suggested that as a part of road obliteration, border stones be placed over the abandoned or obliterated roads. [331]

It was during these years of extensive road reconstruction and bridge building that the National Park Service wrote stringent specifications for special landscape features such as masonry guardrails, wooden guardrails, and stone paving. The specifications covered the materials, construction, and treatment of the features. Other special construction actions such as blasting and cleanup procedures were also addressed. [332] In some cases, the contractors were required to build sample masonry guardrail sections for approval by the park engineer or landscape architect. The wooden guardrails for the most part followed the Standard Specifications for Forest Road Construction, Form F. R. 50, Revised 1932, with a few additional requirements regarding the cutting of timber and preservative treatment. [333]

The road width issue fell somewhere between the safety factor and the aesthetics factor. With increased automobile travel to Yellowstone, the question of safety played a major role in Toll's acceptance of the earlier decision by the National Park Service and the Bureau of Public Roads to have a standardized width of 28 feet, shoulder-to-shoulder, for the Grand Loop and 26 feet, shoulder-to-shoulder, for the other roads. This allowed for a paved width of 20 feet and either 4-foot or 3-foot shoulders, respectively. Superintendent Toll was aware that the disadvantage of the wider roadway would be increased visibility of a wider clearing, higher cuts and fills, and greater costs. The advantages, however, were better support for the paved surface, less risk of accidents for automobiles parked off the road, more room for snow disposal, and a safer road in general. Toll knew the Bureau of Public Roads had been building a higher standard of road, including the building of 30-foot width roads on California State and National Forest projects, with the anticipation of similar proposals for the states surrounding Yellowstone. Toll concluded that building the wider roads would "prove economical in the long run. They are safer and more satisfactory to visitors." [334]

In February of 1936, a tragic automobile accident near Deming, New Mexico, took the lives of Superintendent Toll and the chief of the Wildlife Division for the National Park Service George Wright. The unfortunate accident left a void in the Service, especially at a time when the Wildlife Division was in its infancy and the park system was in a growth period. In Yellowstone, the road program was in full swing with 199 miles of roads under some form of reconstruction and the construction of some of the major park bridges underway. Additional work was done on the secondary road in the Firehole area, and grading and surfacing of the three mile road from near Fountain Paintpot to the number seven milepost near Old Faithful. [335]

Edmund Rogers, who was appointed the new superintendent of Yellowstone, reported to the director that the 1936 travel season posted record numbers of visitors. Visitation reached 432,570, some 36 percent higher than the 1935 figures. Rogers, who received many compliments on the condition of the road system, praised the contractors for their handling of "traffic without very little loss of time or inconvenience to motorists." [336] Work progressed during 1937 on 87.5 miles of road and three contracts were awarded for the construction of 12 bridges and culverts, each more than 20 feet in length. The number of CCC camps had been reduced to four over the past year and most of their road-related work was road obliteration. [337] During the winter, all of the department heads met to discuss sign use in the park and to develop a policy to submit to the director for approval. It was agreed by all to eliminate the use of the mile post signs and all officials generally agreed to a simplification of the informational material on the signs. Engineer Capes of the Bureau of Public Roads sent a recommendation for removal of directional signs from the junction islands and their subsequent placement at least 100 feet from the junction, on the right hand side of the road. He also suggested that a small parking area be placed to "accommodate the 'sign studier'." [338]

During 1937 and 1938, the maintenance crews maintained 401 miles of roads, of which 51 miles were outside the boundaries. In 1938, a short dead end stretch to the Bechler River ranger station in the southwest corner of the Park was added to the maintenance schedule. [339] Temporary measures to improve the checking stations were taken at the North Entrance and East Entrance. In March of 1937, fire destroyed the checking station inside the boundary at the North Entrance Arch. A temporary station was built several hundred feet east of the burned station for use until a new one could be built. [340] At the East Entrance, plans were made to move the checking station to another location where it would be "off center so any new construction can be accomplished without removing the old buildings." [341]

The question of center striping arose again in Yellowstone National Park after four people died in two separate automobile accidents within a 48-hour period. While not proving that these accidents were caused by a lack of striping, it was inferred by an editorial in the Livingston Enterprise, which stated that ". . . the absence of a stripe in the middle of the park roads is a probable cause. . . ." The vice-president of the Yellowstone Park Company, in urging Superintendent Rogers to consider striping the roads stated that:

The use of the center stripe has been adopted by the best highway engineers as a safety measure, and has proven and continues to prove its value. Our transportation drivers complain the Park motorists, in their attempt to view the scenery and drive at the same time, are continually encroaching on the left side of the road, thus making travel extremely hazardous. Our own experience in driving the Company's cars verifies this report of the bus drivers.

We feel that the ordinary requirements of safety demand that the highways in this Park be immediately marked with a center stripe. Scarcely a day passes but that an accident is avoided only by the extreme care and skill of our transportation men. The contention has been maintained by the Park Service that this stripe detracts from, not only the appearance of the Park, but the motorists enjoyment of the scenery. It seems to me that it is more desirable for a tourist to leave the Park all in one piece than it is for him to see every object of interest on his tour.

The use of illuminated discs on the curves, especially at night, has been of material aid in avoiding accidents and we feel that the center stripe in general use in all towns and cities and on the highways is imperative in this Park. [342]

Road construction work in the Park during 1938 was at its lowest and employed the fewest workmen since before 1932. Most of the work that year consisted of completing projects started in 1936 and 1937. Grading was started for a section of the East Entrance approach road and bituminous surfacing for 21 miles of the Northeast Entrance Road was begun. Some work on the Mammoth esplanade and road to Gardiner were completed, as were the two bridges over the Gibbon River. [343]

However, the projection of 1939 work was near the level for the maximum years of 1934 and 1935. Most of the 1939 work was devoted to surfacing previously graded sections. Crews finished the surfacing of 48 miles of road, began surfacing an additional 17 miles, graded 9 miles of road, and completed the Gardner River Bridge, including the grading and surfacing of approximately 1 mile of it's approaches. Five crushing plants and three bituminous mixing plants operated in the Park that year producing over 400,000 tons of surfacing material. Several day labor projects funded by the Public Roads Administration were carried out during the year. The day labor crews continued their drainage improvement program, which had been in progress for several years. Its purpose was to stabilize slides and moving embankments. This expensive and tedious procedure attempted (through the installation of perforated metal drains), to release water from under the fills and thus remove the lubrication along the slippage seams that caused the sliding.

Another day labor project concentrated on removing the stain from the concrete bridges on the Tower Junction to Cooke City Road. A Keramic solution, which had been used on the original construction, produced an unsightly color or stain on the concrete. At the Superintendent's request, a bush hammering technique produced a satisfactory appearance, but the treatment probably exposed the masonry to elements that would shorten the life of the concrete. [344]

By far the highest profile project was completion of the Gardner River Bridge. Construction of the 940-foot bridge involved the fabrication and erection of approximately 1,000 tons of steel. Favorable weather enabled the project, begun in April, to be completed on November 14. Workmen obliterated old road scars, some of which were from the 1880s. The engineers felt that completion of this bridge eliminated one of the "worst traffic hazards on the Grand Loop Highway". [345]

In 1938, the Park was asked by officials of the Golden Gate International Exposition to keep its roads open during the winter so that visitors could travel through on their way to the exposition in California. In response to the request, Thomas Allen, regional director in region two of the National Park Service, stated that in addition to the safety factor created by travelers unfamiliar with the hazardous conditions in Yellowstone, maintenance of the roads during the winter would be very expensive. He explained the Park would need a special congressional appropriation to cover the work. [346] Travel figures for 1939 showed an increase over 1938. Congress did appropriate money for the Park to keep the Gardiner to Cooke City Road open for the first time. This enabled some winter visitors to see the wildlife in the Lamar Valley and it also allowed the Cooke City citizens to leave their homes in the winter. Park officials felt the San Francisco Exposition and the New York World's Fair did contribute to increased visitation. [347]

The period from 1926 to 1939 proved to be one of the most significant periods in the history of the road development in Yellowstone National Park. By the time the third decade ended, 155 miles of the 347-mile system had received a bituminous surface. Ninety-two of the remaining 192 miles of the system had been improved to various stages, leaving approximately 100 miles unimproved. During this period, 30 major bridges were built. The major focus of construction had been the Grand Loop and the entrance roads. Of the 155 miles of bituminous surfaced roads, 96 miles were on the Grand Loop. Only 27 miles of the Grand Loop needed to be improved, including 11 miles between Canyon and Norris Junction.

By the end of 1939, the old days of mudholes and dust had been eliminated. The average motorist probably didn't appreciate the transformation of the road system as he was now "accustomed to improved all-weather highways throughout the nation". [348] The National Park Service and the Bureau of Public Roads attributed their success in park road programs largely to the cooperation with the National Park Service's branch of plans and designs. [349] The satisfaction of the Inter-Bureau program prompted the National Park Service to recommend the relationship continue. The Bureau adopted some National Park Service requirements for use on their Forest Highways projects and other Federal Aid projects, thus improving the appearance of roads outside the parks. [350]

In reviewing the past 13 years of Bureau work in Yellowstone, Bureau Engineer Capes realized that in order to maintain the public's confidence and satisfaction, considerable work still needed to be done in the Park. Recognizing that many of the very early Bureau projects were based on now outdated design standards and that some of the sections would not be adequate for the present and future volume of traffic, a suggested tentative six-year road improvement program, costing approximately $6,500,00, would complete the system. [351] A total of approximately $9 million had been spent over the previous thirteen years.

The Bureau felt that a highway classification study should be completed to indicate safe speed limits on particular routes or sections of routes and to devise a classification of the routes. While the accident rate in 1939 was not significant, the fatal accidents over "the past few years indicated that there was a need for an intensive safety program study." Capes believed that several safety measures; centerline striping, improved road signing, and an intensive road patrolling system, initiated over the past year, helped to improve the safety on the park roads.

In 1939, the established maximum speed limit was 45 miles-per-hour, with a few 15 mile-per hour zone exceptions. Capes felt the conditions of Swan Lake Flats, Fountain Flats, near the Buffalo Ranch, and a few other road sections justified the allowed 45 miles-per-hour limit. However, the majority of the roads did not. Using computations based on sight distances of vertical and horizontal curves and braking distance in addition to three seconds' reaction time, Capes believed the majority of the roads warranted a 35 mile-per-hour limit with a few exceptions—perhaps 25 miles-per-hour on Mammoth Hot Springs to Golden Gate, most of the Norris to Madison Road and the Dunraven Pass Road. [352]

Another survey the Bureau of Public Roads requested was a subgrade soils survey for the entire road system. While most of the road surface failures had been in the northern section of the Park, engineers felt that it was worthwhile to investigate their causes and possible corrections. As a whole, the system did not experience many failures due to faulty subgrades, but mostly due to slides and movements caused by "deep underground slippage seams." In addition to the soils survey, the Bureau felt that an investigation of such construction materials as sand, aggregates, and stone, would complement the National Park Service's systemwide policy proposal of "predetermining and designating quarries and pits for construction materials whereby the number of borrow pit excavations may be better controlled and limited throughout the Park." [353] Capes felt that this was particularly important in Yellowstone National Park where the engineers were faced with such a wide variety of geological formations.

In concluding his assessment of the Yellowstone road system, Capes advised that maintenance and improvements to the "so-called completed portions" should not be overlooked. If overlooked, the neglect could result in a major reconstruction program in a few years. The improvements that should be monitored were the following:

1. Much of the 10-to-12-year-old timber guardrail was in bad condition and was unsightly.

2. The bituminous surface that was completed under the trench method should be reinforced and strengthened along the edges.

3. Headwall hazards should be eliminated by the installation of drop inlets and gutter paving.

4. Attention should be given to the bituminous surfaces that showed signs of distress and were in need of seal and cover.

5. Monitor cross-section distortion due to subgrade or settlement movement. [354]

In 1940, the Yellowstone road system accommodated a volume of vehicular traffic equal to five times the amount present when the Bureau of Public Roads (now the Public Roads Administration) took over road construction in 1926, without the restraints of the one-way system that had existed on approximately 50 percent of the Grand Loop. In 1940, road engineers continued their previous year's projects, and started only one new project late in the season. That year's accomplishments were: the completion of 34 miles of bituminous surfacing, 5-1/2 miles of grading, the construction of the 335-foot Lamar River Bridge, and construction of four bridges on the East Entrance Approach road. Road officials projected that six major bridges remained to be built in the Park and three on the approach roads. Despite having to pay more for skilled grades of labor, road construction costs seemed to decline, probably due to improved methods and equipment and less reliance on hand labor. Only 15 percent of the engineering force was hired from the local areas and those were usually jobs such as stakemen and flagmen. The remaining 85 percent were classified Civil Service personnel. [355]

Capes felt that with the proposed six-year plan, all essential work would be done to complete the Yellowstone road system. The only project proposed and surveyed in 1927 that had not been planned or completed was the Bighorn Pass Road off the Gallatin River Entrance Road. In 1940, this proposed road was not considered necessary. Capes did express concern over the 18 miles of unimproved road on the Grand Teton to Yellowstone Approach Road. Calling it a "disgrace to the two National Parks which it serves," Capes stated that it had the "lowest standard of improvement of any Federal Aid highway in that section of the State, and being a link in both U.S. Highways 89 and 287, is very deserving of improvement." [356]

With the diligent maintenance program costing $200 to $300 per mile that Capes had been promoting, the Park could avoid major rehabilitation in a few years. Capes recognized the various problems of road construction in such a diversified area. One of the major problems was frost heave damage which varied from year to year. The worst areas in the Park occurred where the roadbed crossed a wet or swampy area over a superimposed 3 to 4-foot fill. In Yellowstone, frost can go down 5 to 6 feet and cause the roadbed to upheave.

Another concern was that asphaltic material of the older bituminous surfaces had oxidized and had become brittle. Any slight underground movement seemed to result in surface cracks. Still another concern was the parkwide replacement of timber guardrail. Most of the existing guardrail had deteriorated to a condition where it settled out of alignment and no longer provided protection. Furthermore, it presented an unsightly appearance. [357] The state of Wyoming recommended that the National Park Service abandon the standard log guardrail used on all park roads and replace them with the post and reflector type that Wyoming had adopted. In the end, the National Park Service began using a native stained post, 8 inches in diameter, with a reflector placed on each post, spaced 30 to 50 feet apart. [358]

Maintenance crews continued the oiling program, treating more than 60 miles of roadway. The procedure varied from the use of a dust palliative treatment on unreconstructed roads to the use of a more intensive road mix. About 30 miles of this was sealed with a rapid-curing oil treatment, followed by application of native pit-run sand or rhyolite. [359] Maintenance issues received national attention, perhaps as a result of the rapid expansion of the National Park system, including the Natchez Trace, the Blue Ridge Parkway, and Shenandoah's Skyline Drive, as well as the fact that more motorists were visiting national parks. During the 1940 travel season, visitation figures for the system were more than 16.7 million people; and Yellowstone, for the first time, reached more than one-half million (526,437) people. [360]

The National Park Service began gathering detailed road data and equipment records in order to formulate a comprehensive road maintenance program. The engineering laboratory was used to examine road and construction materials. [361]