Yellowstone Historic Resource Study The History of the Construction of the Road System in Yellowstone National Park, 1872-1966

*In order for this document to be useful as a management tool, the history of the Grand Loop Road's construction has been divided into the following seven sections: Mammoth Hot Springs to Madison Junction, Madison Junction to Old Faithful, Old Faithful to West Thumb, West Thumb to Lake Junction, Lake Junction to Tower Junction, Tower Junction to Mammoth Hot Springs, Norris Junction to Canyon Junction.

MAMMOTH HOT SPRINGS TO MADISON JUNCTION

During Superintendent Philetus Norris' first year, 1877, in Yellowstone, he proposed a route or bridle-path from Mammoth Hot Springs to the Firehole River region via the Gardner Falls and the Gibbon River which would connect the only two entrances to the Park, the west and north. This proposal was part of a larger scheme which included the construction of a wagon road from Mammoth Hot Springs to Henry's Lake via the Tower Falls, Mount Washburn, Yellowstone Falls, Yellowstone Lake, Firehole Basin, and exiting the Park on the older western route into the geyser basin region. Norris felt that the wagon road would connect almost all of the major points of interest and also connect the two entrances into the Park. In addition to the Mammoth Hot Springs to Firehole bridle-path, another bridle-path was proposed, from the Stillwater River to the Upper Geyser Basin via the Clark's Fork mines, Soda Butte, through the petrified forests to Amethyst Mountain, Pelican Creek, the outlet of Yellowstone Lake, Shoshone Lake, and on to Old Faithful in the geyser basin. Norris also planned to build facilities at Mammoth Hot Springs.

Upon arriving in the Park the following year with the first congressional appropriation of $10,000, Norris' priorities for building facilities and beginning the construction of the wagon road were changed due to the previous year's conflict with the Nez Perce Indians and a continual threat from the Bannock Indians. Instead, Norris began construction of the first permanent road in the Park, Mammoth Hot Springs to the Lower Geyser Basin. Completion of the road would facilitate the movement of military from Fort Ellis, Montana, to Henry's Lake in Idaho or Virginia City, Montana and of course, would be used by the ever-increasing number of visitors to the Park. [1]

Prior to his explorations for appropriate routes, Norris viewed possible routes from the top of Sepulcher Mountain. He could spot the route that he had taken in 1875 and he visualized a route to the south through the park via Gibbon Canyon, Firehole Basin, the Continental Divide and on to the Tetons. Norris knew construction through the canyons could prove difficult and dangerous, but it appeared to be the most straightforward and practical wagon route. [2] Furthermore, the unusual conditions, the presence of huge masses of obsidian, in the Obsidian Cliff area posed problems for road construction.

In the survey of the road section immediately south of Mammoth Hot Springs, Norris located three possible routes from Mammoth Hot Springs to the plateau near Swan Lake. One route, the longest and most precipitous, followed the Gardner Canyon over the pass via the Osprey Falls and Rustic Falls to the plateau (route later became the Bunsen Peak Road); another route, which had a more gradual grade but also had a sheer wall section to be transversed, was the opening created by Glen Creek on to Swan Lake; the third and chosen course was the most direct route, but with steep grades, through Snow Pass above the hot spring terraces. A visitor described this first section through Snow Pass as "So steep is the climb that if the tail-board of a wagon falls out . . . the whole load is promptly dumped out in the road. A good road, though, a longer one, might have been built over the same ground." [3]

From the flat area near Swan Lake to the Obsidian Cliff area, no great construction difficulties were encountered, however penetrating the "glass mountain," Obsidian Cliff took ingenuity. Norris described his technique:

Obsidian there rises like basalt in vertical columns many hundreds of feet high, and countless huge masses had fallen from this utterly impassable mountain into the hissing hot spring margin of an equally impassable lake, without either Indian or game trail over the glistening fragments of nature's glass, sure to severely lacerate. As this glass barricade sloped from some 200 or 300 feet high against the cliff at an angle of some 45 degree to the lake, we . . . with the slivered fragments of timber thrown from the height . . . with huge fires, heated and expanded, and then, . . . well screened by blankets held by others, by dashing cold water, suddenly cooled and fractured the large masses. Then with huge level steel bars, sledge, pick and shovels and severe laceration of at least the hands and faces of every member of the party, we rolled, slid, crushed and shoveled one-fourth of a mile of good wagon-road midway along the slope; it being, so far as I am aware, the only road of native glass upon the continent. [4]

Leaving the "glass mountain," the 1878 road followed in an southeasterly direction to Lake of the Woods, Solfatara Creek into the Norris Geyser Basin. Norris' road proceeded through Elk Park, Gibbon Meadows into the Gibbon Canyon. At an approximate point where the Gibbon River flows in a westerly direction, the road left the canyon in a gap between cliffs and traversed pine covered slopes connecting with the Madison Junction to Old Faithful Road south of the present day Madison Junction.

During 1879, Norris supervised improvements to the grades at Obsidian Cliff, in the Norris area and into the Gibbon Canyon. He found spanning the Gibbon, Firehole and Madison rivers, or their creeks and streams could prove to be very interesting. He wrote "Few of the anomalous features of the LAND OF WONDERS are of greater scientific interest or of more practical value than the placid, uniform water-flow in its hot spring and geyser-fed rivulets and streams." Because these water courses are generally "broad, shallow, grassy and flowers carpeted to the water's brim, . . . with long stretches of flowing grass and occasional hot spring pools in the channels, . . . with overhanging turfy banks," Norris decreased the need for some bridges by cutting a slope through the turf forming a very good and permanent ford. Instead of a bridge he placed "long, limber poles and foot-logs, only a few inches above the low stage of water." [5]

The following season, bridges were built to span the Gardner and Gibbon rivers, including costly, long causeways, turnpikes, and grades along the Norris fork of the Gibbon River. An extension of the road to the Forks of the Gardner River was finished and a road "through the eastern branch nearly half-way through its terrible canon, necessitated a grade of over 1,000 feet within two miles." [6] In 1882, the new superintendent, Patrick Conger who accomplished little in road construction, was responsible for the construction of a substantial bridge over the Gardner River. The construction was supervised by Capt. E. S. Topping. The bridge, which was 12 miles south of Mammoth Hot Springs, was built in two weeks. The 96 feet long structure had abutments built well out into the river on both sides. The center pier and the abutments were constructed of log in a V-shaped configuration, pinned at the corners and filled with rock above the high water mark. The bridge was covered with hewn logs, 5 inches thick. [7] Topping and his crew built and repaired culverts and crossways, removed rocks and boulders, and still Conger wrote "Our road is still in a mountainous and rugged country, requiring much labor and expense before it can be said to be a good road." In his appeal for more appropriations for road work, he described the situation:

. . . when you consider the extent of the territory and the great natural obstructions that have to be encountered, it seems to me it must be evident, . . . the amount heretofore placed at the disposal of the Secretary of Interior for the protection and improvement of Yellowstone National Park is entirely inadequate . . . . But to proceed with our road we have to pass over some very high hills to reach the valley of the main Gibbon, where we encounter a wide low bottom called the Geyser Meadow, a place where it will require a large amount of labor to make a good road. After passing the meadow our road enters the Gibbon Canyon and follows the river down several miles, close on the edge of the stream, crossing the same three times in as many miles over difficult and dangerous crossings in time of high water. After passing through this canyon our road gains the highlands, by a steep grade along the side of the mountain on the south side of the river. We soon come to the great falls of the Gibbon where the river plunges over a perpendicular precipice of 75 feet, which in the stillness of the evergreen forest that covers this country renders the scene as enchantingly beautiful as 'fairyland'. [8]

Army engineer Lt. Dan Kingman, who assumed the responsibility for road construction in the Park in 1883, found this section of road to be the most heavily traveled in the park and in the worst condition. His largest work crews reported there until heavy snows of 18 to 30 inches fell during the middle of October of 1883. With the exception of a 3 miles stretch in the Gibbon Canyon, this 40 miles section was widened and straightened, boulders and stumps removed and slopes reduced. Frequently spaced turnouts and a new ford were built. The existing bridges were repaired and the corduroy sections were covered with sod and earth. The work on this section cost approximately $6,300 or $170 per mile. [9]

In 1885 major projects and changes were made to Mammoth Hot Springs to Firehole Basin area. Substantial bridges were completed, one over the Gardner River at the ford, one over the Gibbon River at the lower ford, and one over the Gibbon River at the third crossing.

Work was completed on the new route immediately south of Mammoth Hot Springs. The 4-1/2 miles Mammoth Hot Springs to Gardner via Golden Gate and the West Fork of the Gardner River, which was started in 1883, was completed in a seven month period. Twelve hundred and seventy-five pounds of explosives were used and over thirteen hundred shots in drilled holes were fired. As a result, fourteen thousand cubic yards of solid rock was excavated in addition to a large amount of broken and crushed rock. This dangerous section of road was completed without any loss of life or injury. The completion of this section reduced the route by 1-1/3 miles and the time to many areas in the park from 2 hours to 1/2 day depending on the type of wagon and load. The reduced ascent of 250 feet to Swan Lake plateau enabled loaded wagons traveling in opposite directions to now pass with relative ease. The near vertical stone walls of the canyon prevented an excavated roadway, thus a 228 feet wooden trestle carried the roadway. Lieutenant Kingman noted in his report for 1885 that the "natural stone monument at the end of the trestle" marked what "visitors have called the Golden Gate." [10]

Kingman established a road camp near the Norris Geyser Basin in order to begin work on the new road between Norris Geyser Basin and Beaver Lake where it would connect with the old road at the head of the lake. The poorly located old road ran in an easterly direction south of Beaver Lake, before entering the woods near Lake of the Woods, then the road followed Solfatara Creek and crossing the Continental Divide near the confluence of the rivers near Norris Junction. Due to excessive snow depths and heavy timber covering, the snow covered the road well into May. The poor subsurface drainage caused by the heavy clay soils and the "saucer-like shape" of the pass produced "horrible conditions" for travelers. Kingman noted that it was not uncommon "to see a team lying in the mud, tangled in their harness and floundering about in almost in inextricable [sic] confusion while the drivers looked on in despair." Consequently, Kingman had sought a new route which would provide more exposure to the sun, better drainage and soil conditions. The 7 miles of new road, completed by the middle of October, cost $6,269.80. Before the close of the 1885 season, the crews replaced "a long and rather unsafe structure built of poles" with a "single span King-post truss of 30 feet" combined with a causeway, over the Gibbon River near the Norris Geyser Basin. [11]

In 1887, the wooden trestle through Golden Gate was strengthened by placing new timber supports and road-bearer cross beams. A log and pole temporary bridge had to be placed over Obsidian Creek at the ford due to the unusually high runoff. Lieutenant Kingman's replacement, Capt. Clinton Sears, proposed building a new 7 miles road from Swan Lake Flats to Beaver Lake, a new road between Norris Basin and Gibbon Canyon which would complete the 6 miles gap, and build a new road from Gibbon Canyon to the Firehole Basin. With a small appropriation for 1888, he was able to build a road from Norris Hotel across the Gibbon Meadow connecting with the road into Gibbon Canyon and a 7 miles stretch from Obsidian Cliff northwards. [12]

In 1889, a King and Queen post-truss through span of 40 feet was built over the Gardner River at the south end of Swan Lake Flats. It had a trestle span of 20 feet, a roadway width of 14 feet and a height above low water of 6-1/2 feet. A 86 feet long trestle bridge with a 13 feet and 8 inch width roadway between guardrails, a 5-1/2 feet above the low water, was built over the Gibbon River in the canyon. The engineers felt that a trestle bridge could be safely built because the river, which has many hot springs in its bed, would not receive ice build-up. Thus at the end of 1889, the following bridges were in service on the Mammoth Hot Springs to Madison Junction:

1. three spans of 33 feet over Gardner River—no truss
2. three spans of 32 feet over Gardner River—King post
3. trestle of 224 feet—Golden Gate
4. one span of 14 feet over West Gardner—no truss
5. two spans of 40 feet and 20 feet over Gardner River King and Queen post
6. one span of 32 feet over Obsidian Creek—King post
7. one span of 16 feet over Obsidian Creek—no truss
8. one span of 32 feet over Obsidian Creek—King post
9. One span of 34 feet over Gibbon River—King post
10. one span of 20 feet over slough at Norris—no truss
11. two spans of 40 feet over Gibbon River—Queen post
12. trestle of 75 feet over Gibbon River—Queen post
13. one span of 24 feet over Gibbon River—no truss
14. one span of 24 feet over Gibbon River—no truss
15. one span of 20 feet over Gibbon River—no truss [13]

During 1890, one of the two major projects in the Park was the construction of retaining walls in the Gibbon Canyon area. [14] In 1895, the Army completed another bridge over the Gibbon River at an old ford, near the mouth of the canyon. [15] The next major road projects for this section would be a part of Capt. Hiram Chittenden's 1900 multi-year plan for completion of the Grand Loop Road.

Among Chittenden's proposals for the multi-year project, he recommended a new widened road through Golden Gate Canyon including a new bridge to replace the wooden trestle around the cliff, raising 3 miles of road 2 or 3 feet in Gibbon Canyon and cutting out 1 mile of dangerous grades, and constructing 4 miles of new road down the Gibbon to connect with the western entrance road. [16]

About one mile of the original wagon road along the Gibbon River Canyon remained in 1900. The road had two very steep grades, one of which had a sharp curve at the bottom right at the river's bank. Chittenden found this particular stretch to be most dangerous as the failure of brakes or any other emergency might bring a team and wagon into the river. He called the road through Gibbon Canyon "One of the most pleasing in the park. It runs immediately along the bank of the river and is of easy grade. Unfortunately it is not built high enough above the river to make it safe. The river at every heavy flood goes clear over the road and has washed it out twice in the past six years." By 1903 the two bad grades had been cut out, one mile of new road had been constructed and a new steel bridge with concrete abutments had been built. During the winter of 1902, rock was hauled on sleds for about a mile to be used in the construction of the new heavy retaining wall on the newly reconstructed section of road about a half mile below Gibbon Falls. [17]

In 1904, a worn-out bridge in the Gibbon Canyon was replaced with a small 45 degree skew span and the following year the bridge over the Gibbon near Norris Junction was reconstructed and a steel truss was built over the Gardner River at the 7 mile post (Seven Mile Bridge). [18] Chittenden completed the construction work on the Golden Gate during 1902. [19]

Before Captain Chittenden left Yellowstone to begin supervision of the roads in Mount Rainier, he made the following recommendations for improvements to the Mammoth Hot Springs to Madison Junction road:

. . . great care should be taken in widening the road through the 'Hoodoos' to prevent the destruction of unusual rock formations. It will be better to let the right of way have an irregular alignment—being narrower in some places than in others—than to sacrifice this peculiar formation in order to get a uniform width throughout. . . . it would be better to require all teams to come to a walk there than to remedy the defect by blasting out those picturesque rocks.

Forested areas at Apollinaris Springs, a point 8-1/2 miles from headquarters, Crystal Springs, and at mileposts 13, 14, and 17 miles out should be cut back on the east side about 30 feet to expose the snow to the sun. However, if these forests contained fine specimens of trees, the stands should be preserved. The Apollinaris Spring, Kepler Cascade, Mud Geyser and other coach unloading platforms should be rebuilt and extended to a length of 100 feet.

The first hill just beyond the Growler can probably be brought to the adopted grade of 8% by a small amount of cutting and filling and no relocation of the old road is deemed necessary. The second hill just beyond the first milepost can probably be dealt with better by going around it to the south. A personal reconnaissance of the ground indicates the entire practicality of such a line. If built, it should leave the present road at the foot of the first hill near the Minute Man Geyser and rejoin near the foot of the second hill at the beginning of the tangent across Elk Park.

The maintenance of the retaining wall along the Gibbon River between Elk Park and Gibbon Meadow can probably be avoided advantageously by putting the road back farther into the rock. If the wall is retained it will have to be relaid in mortar. [20]

1st Lt. Ernest Peek, who replaced Hiram Chittenden, agreed with Chittenden's earlier suggestion of building all stone drywalls in the park and in 1907 began repairs on the drywalls near Gibbon Falls. In order to efficiently coordinate the work on this section, he established a number of road camps including one near Obsidian Cliff and one near Beryl Springs. The camps had floored and frame tents. [21] In 1908, Peek requested sufficient funds to purchase three bridges, including two for the Gibbon River, but his request was not honored. Thus very little major work occurred, but road surfacing was carried out from Silver Gate to the 5 milepost across from Swan Lake Flats. Near Crystal Spring, "considerable work was done on the roadside in order to deepen the ditches and give the road a good high crown." Surfacing was also done on the Norris to Fountain road from 2-1/2 to 2-3/4 miles. The 25 foot bridge at Obsidian Cliff and the 15 foot bridge at Apollinaris were each replaced by fills with 4 feet culverts. At Obsidian Cliff, the road was raised over 2 feet to improve the grade and it was also straightened. A fill of a foot was also made at Apollinaris. [22]

In 1909, Army Captain Willing conducted an inspection of the bridges in the Park which stated condition and made recommendations for improvements. On this section of the road, Willing found:

Bridge No. 2 across the Gibbon River, 5-5/8 miles south of Norris Station—The present structure consists of one wooden span with two wooden approaches, and was built in 1895. The timber in the bridge is sawed pine lumber, which at present is in a decaying condition, some of the floor beams being broken and held in place by props. The structure is in an unsafe condition, and it is recommended that it be replaced by two 50' low truss, pin connected steel spans, resting on two concrete abutments and one concrete center pier.

Bridge No. 3, Gibbon Canon Bridge, across Gibbon River, 7 miles south of Norris—The present structure is a trestle bridge 80' long, built 1891, of sawed pine timber which is in a decaying condition. It is recommended that this bridge be replaced by an 80' low truss, pin connected steel span, resting on concrete abutments. As the bridge crosses the stream, at an angle of about 45 degrees, it will be necessary to make this bridge askew.

Bridge No. 4, Gibbon Canon Bridge, across Gibbon River, 9 miles south of Norris Station. The present bridge consists of two piers in the stream, two abutments of logs, and log stringers spanning the space between these piers. It was built in 1892, is 65' long is in shaky and decaying condition. It is recommended that it be replaced by a 65' low truss, pin connected steel span, resting concrete abutments. It will be necessary that this bridge also be built askew as the road crosses the river at an angle of about 45 degrees.

Bridge No. 5, across the Gibbon River at Wylie's Lunch Station. The present structure consists of one pier in the middle of the stream, and two log abutments with log stringers spanning the space between. The bridge was built about eight years ago and is in a fair condition, but two light in construction for the travel it has to carry. It is recommended that it be replaced by a 40' steel plate girder span, resting on concrete abutments.

Bridge No. 7, at the mouth of the Gibbon River, near the junction with Firehole River. The present bridge consists of one wooden span with approach at one end, resting on wooden piers and abutments, total length 66'. This bridge was built in June and July, 1896, and is also in the advanced state of decay and is unsafe. It is recommended that this bridge be replaced by a 65' low truss, pin connected steel span, resting on concrete abutments. [23]

During 1909, the road between mileposts 8 and 15 was ditched and crowned and the road was raised about 1-1/2 feet at the culvert fill across Willow Creek. The ruts caused by heavy traffic and water were filled with surfacing material. [24] In 1911, the road from Gardiner to Norris Junction was regraded and 21 miles of the road was graveled. Also that year, the engineers recognized the need to replace section of the dry, rubble wall along the Gibbon River. [25] During the winter of 1912, Captain Knight recommended that additional dry rubble guard walls be built on the outside edges of curves through the Golden Gate. He suggested the road along the Gibbon River between points 8 and 9 be raised two feet for 1-1/2 miles to keep it from overflowing in the spring and that sections of the dry rubble retaining walls be rebuilt. [26] He also felt that the old, crumbling retaining wall between Norris and Fountain should be replaced and that the narrow road should be widened. [27]

In 1914, gravel was placed over the middle 8 to 10 feet of the Golden Gate to Swan Lake Flats road to bring up the crown and fill in the wagon ruts. The gravel, which was taken from a pit just east of the 4 milepost was loaded through a trap by drag scrapers. It took approximately 1/4 yard of gravel per linear foot of road. [28] Some of the old bridges on the Mammoth Hot Springs to Madison Junction were replaced during the year. A two 40 feet span reinforced concrete bridge was built over the Gibbon River, 7 miles from Norris, and one 65 feet single span girder and slab constructed bridge was built over the Gibbon near the confluence with the Firehole River. A 40 feet steel arch bridge was built over the Gibbon River near the Wylie Camp, 17 miles from the West Entrance. More reconstruction of stone retaining walls was done in the Gibbon Canyon and the road crews built a barn in the Gibbon Meadows camp, a cabin at the Beaver Lake camp, and two "public-comfort houses" were built in the Norris Geyser Basin. [29]

No major road projects occurred on this section of the Grand Loop Road for a few years. Shortly after the National Park Service was created, Secretary of the Interior, Franklin Lane visited the Park. During his inspection of the road system, he recognized a safety and visual problem in the Gibbon Canyon, the growth of small trees along the road. He found that the trees obstructed the view of the river and in turn made for dangerous driving. He also felt the removal of a few trees at the Gibbon Falls would "afford a better view of the falls." Other comments of condition on this section were:

On top of hill on main road two miles from Mammoth, a number of very bad and hard rolls and bumps. Two serious holes, more than half way across Swan Lake Flats. Bridges at Upper Gardner River, Willow Creek and Gibbon River at Norris, below and above road levels. Road at Roaring Mountain in poor shape. Road Norris to Fountain down the Gibbon Canyon very rough, full of large chuck holes and broken culverts. Also contains one or two improvised log bridges where culverts have been washed out. Wylie Gibbon Camp over Mesa Road to Firehole River, about four very bad chuck holes that could be filled with little expense. [30]

During 1921, a new steel and concrete bridge was placed over the Gibbon River near Norris and wooden mess halls were built at Madison Junction and at Gibbon Meadows. [31] For the next few years, small allotments financed minor road projects, mostly accomplished on short sections at the end of the season. In September 1927, a crew composed of men and teams from disbanded work groups, began a grading project along the Gibbon River. The 1928 appropriation provided sufficient funds for work for a complete season. Foreman John Benson established a temporary work camp at milepost 17 on May 17, 1928 in order to begin the heavy steam shovel work in rock cuts and to arrange detours for traffic. Later the camp was moved to Norris Junction to continue the project which was finally finished in May 1929.

In June, 1930, Foreman O.A. Weisgerber established a camp at the old Beaver Lake road camp in order to begin work on the Bijah Springs-Obsidian Cliff section. A dangerous curve was reconstructed near milepost 15 and between the Gardner River crossing and the Glen Creek crossing, the crews were stalled by underground springs which required the installation of subdrainage. Material from a rhyolite slide north of Obsidian Cliff was used for a rock sub base. An Osgood gas shovel, which had been moved up the Gibbon River-Norris Junction section was used on this section. The next section mostly required light cuts in the existing roadway and side cuts to straighten and widen the road. On this section, the banks were sloped up to an 8 or 10 feet cut on a 1-1/2 and a 2 to 1 slope. It was felt that the slopes, which would present a pleasing appearance, would also suffer less erosion from heavy runoff and the vegetation would take root easily. Upon completion of the excavation of this segment, the shovel removed rhyolite material from a pit behind the Norris Ranger Station for use as a light coating material for surfacing. The camp was dismantled in November. [32]

In October, 1929, when the weather became too bad to work in the interior of the Park, the crews resumed work on 600 feet of road in the Mammoth Lodge area. Most of the project was in fill, but the additional rough fill material needed was obtained from the demolished concrete grainery near the Tower Falls and Mammoth Hot Springs junction and from abandoned concrete flumes near the Mammoth Lodge. The removal of these structures were part of the Landscape Division's plan for the Mammoth area. The rough fill was covered by material obtained from the road slopes above the Mammoth reservoir and the finer material for surfacing came from the pit on Capitol Hill. In addition to the road construction, the old wooden sidewalk and the continuing gravel walk to the Mammoth Lodge was replaced with a stone curb sidewalk. The new sidewalk was described as:

a stone curb walk, 2,412 feet in length, and with an emulsified asphalt surface. Curbing of locally quarried sandstone, is twelve inches wide and with a clear face of eight inches on the street side. Width of walk between curbs is five feet, an overall width of seven feet. The space between curbs was filled to within three inches of the top with any available material. Above this was spread two courses of grade size gravel, each coat being sprayed with a penetrating coat of Bitumen and rolled to a true cross section. A final coat of fine native sand was then broomed into the surface, giving a natural gray finish to the walk. [33]

After the Bureau of Public Roads assumed the road construction and improvement responsibilities for the Park in 1926, the Mammoth Hot Springs to Madison Junction was considered as a major project, however, adequate funding for location surveys was not received until 1929 and 1930 and as earlier stated, the lower segment of the section was constructed by National Park Service day labor work. The location survey for the Mammoth Hot Springs to Obsidian Cliff segment was made during the fall of 1930. At that time additional funds were requested for more investigation of the Golden Gate and for designs for a new viaduct.

A better route south from Mammoth Hot Springs was investigated, however, an improvement to the existing route through Golden Gate was deemed more advisable than the old route through Snow Pass and/or Bunsen Peak, or a preliminary proposal by the Park's engineering department of following a higher location through Golden Gate Canyon toward Mammoth Hot Springs through the Hoodoos. The National Park Service's landscape division did not approve of cutting.

The Bureau of Public Roads' proposed route followed the older Army road from Mammoth Hot Springs south except at the Gardner River crossing and the Obsidian Creek crossing, where it moves approximately 1/4 mile eastward for a distance of about 3/4 mile.

The 18 feet standard roadway design by the Bureau of Public Roads was used on this road segment. The design provided an 18 feet surfaced roadway with three feet shoulders on each side, both on fills and cuts. Three feet standard ditches, one foot deep with 2 to 1 slopes into the ditch, from the shoulder, were provided for sections in cuts. The cut slopes were designed for slopes 1 to 1 or flatter in common material as specified by the Landscape Division of the National Park Service. For the use of materials other than common, the cut slopes were designed at slopes thought to be stable for the particular material, except that all cuts four feet were designed with one to one slopes. The fill slopes were all designed at 1-1/2 to 1.

The Bureau called for the use of corrugated, galvanized metal pipe culverts with cement rubble headwalls for the minor drainages and for reinforced concrete box culverts with cement rubble headwalls for creek crossings. They also recommended the construction of a reinforced concrete structure, 75 or 80 feet long of 2 or 3 spans at the crossing of the Gardner River at station 233 +50.

In assessing the Golden Gate viaduct situation, the Bureau found the present viaduct below the grade of the located line and too narrow thus, a new a new viaduct was necessary. In order not to incur further scarring, a wider and slightly higher structure was needed. They recommended cement rubble retaining walls on either end of the viaduct and the respective length of the wall. The new reconstruction would also require a tunnel approximately 100 feet in length.

Finding snow conditions worse in the Swan Lake Flats area, snow fences were suggested to control the conditions on the flats. The Bureau did not project possible snow conditions at either entry to the tunnel, but they did try to consider snow problems on the route in case of possible winter use of the road.

A sand and gravel pit on Swan Lake Flats was approved for concrete aggregate material, but its conspicuous location limited the amount that could be extracted from it. [34]

Following the completion of the Location Survey, the Denver office of the Bureau of Public Roads designed the road and also the plans and specifications for the Seven Mile Bridge over the Gardner River. The Bureau's plans designated grading and draining on an 18 feet 1930 standard roadway width. Concrete box culverts and corrugated metal pipe were designed for drainages; tile drain and rubble drains were planned for wet and swampy areas.

Following the advertisement for bids in the Rocky Mountain News, Denver, The Billings Gazette, Billings, Montana, and the Salt Lake Tribune, Stevens Brothers of St. Paul, Minnesota was awarded the contract with a bid of $140,126.65 or 73% of the engineer's estimate. The contractor, who was awarded the contract on August 5, 1931, set up camp immediately and began construction work on August 13.

Three camps were used for this contract. During 1931, the camp near station 55, or near Apollinaris Springs was used, then moving the camp to station 300 at Swan Lake Flats in October, 1931. For the remainder of the construction time, a camp near station 515 was used. These camps consisted of portable cabins positioned on wheels for cook houses, office and bunk houses, and tents to accommodate extra crews. The average daily crew working on the project was 57 men using the following equipment:

3 - "60" Caterpillar tractors
2 - Hydraulic Bodies
2 - Hydraulic Fresnos
1 - Concrete mixer
1 - Hydraulic Bulldozer
1 - Hydraulic scarifier
1 - Elevating Grader
14 - Teams with dump wagons
1 - 1-1/4 yard gas shovel
4 - 3 ton dump trucks
4 - 1 ton trucks
1 - Grader, 12' blade
1 - Compressor
1 - Small electric light plant [35]

One of the partners of the firm, C.R. Stevens, served as superintendent of the project. Using mostly long-time firm employees, he also hired common labor locally. The foreman was paid $140 per month, skilled labor, $100 to $140 per month, common labor, $55 per month. The contractor gave a $45 per month subsistence sum.

During 1931 season, grading began at a point south of Obsidian Cliff and in 2-1/2 months had progressed to station 245 near the crossing of the Gardner River, but cold weather forced the crews to move toward the other end of the project near Mammoth. Prior to shutting down for the winter, all concrete work had been done, the Seven Mile Bridge begun, some masonry work finished and the drainage projects completed as the grading progressed.

The contractor started the 1932 season on May 12 with shovel and dump trucks working in the Hoodoos. Extensive blasting was required to break up and loosen the huge wedged rocks, then more blasting was needed to break the rocks into manageable sizes for hauling. Grading continued on the project until August. During the 1932 season, the Seven Mile Bridge was completed, pipes, head walls, and rubble drains, were completed as grading permitted, and an old road was obliterated. The old road, from station 465 to station 496, required tearing out old retaining walls, cutting of the old shoulders, and hauling out the waste material. The new road approximately paralleled the old road.

Two concrete box culverts were installed, one 8' x 6', at station 64, the Obsidian Creek crossing and an 8' x 4' at station 369, the Glen Creek crossing. Corrugated metal pipes with masonry headwalls were installed over the other drainages. Tile and rubble drains and rock sub-base were installed in the swampy ground in areas of springs. The project required the installation of 1922 feet of tile drain and 5,955 feet of rubble drain.

The types of material the grading crews faced throughout the project were varied. From just south of Obsidian Cliff to near the Glen Creek crossing, the cuts were through solid rock, loose rock, gravel, muddy swamps and common earth. From the Hoodoos to the end of the project at the Mammoth Terraces, cuts were through solid rock and very large loose rocks, with some common earth and gravel toward the end. Since the Park required that all borrow pits should not be visible from the road, some difficulty was experienced in finding suitable material with a reasonable hauling distance. [36]

The engineering crews occupied three portable cabins built by the contractor at the National Park Service's Beaver Meadow maintenance camp during 1931, then moving to Mammoth Hot Springs until the end of the project. In addition to retracing the center line and cross-sectioning the entire project, staking culverts, and drains, the engineers placed concrete center-line markers at intervals of approximately one-half mile over the entire project. A light palliative oil treatment, 4,000 gallons per mile, was applied to the entire project to aid in the dust nuisance and serve as an interim measure until a surface course of crushed rock or gravel was applied. The project was completed by September 6, 1932 for a total cost of $136,810.94. [37]

Several landscape architecture issues were identified during 1932. During Landscape Architect Mattson's inspection of the guard rail between Mammoth Hot Springs and Norris in July, he objected to the use of the dark stain. The Bureau attributed the use of the stain as the result of competitive bidding, but he was willing to work with the Park to achieve a desired effect. After discussing the use of oil to thin the stain, Mattson was assured that the stain would bleach to a lighter shade. However, in discussing the staining of the guard rail at Madison Junction, he "asked them not to stain the guard rail at Madison Junction until it was complete and then use every effort to obtain the original desired color." [38]

Vista clearance and guard rail installation was also considered by the Park landscape architects in their July report:

Upon the completion of the Mammoth Hot Springs to Obsidian Cliff segment, the short steel Seven Mile Bridge which the new road bypassed was removed by Park crews then the old road obliterated. The new road location required the removal of 5,460 feet of telephone lines. The 18-wire system was relocated through a 16 feet right-of-way in a wooded area. [40]

In October, 1933, John McLaughlin of Great Falls, Montana, was awarded the surfacing contract for the 11.99 miles of road between Obsidian Cliff and Mammoth Hot Springs. Upon receiving the contract, McLaughlin set up camp about 600 feet to the right of station 520, a site which had been used by two previous contractors. McLaughlin purchased the frame buildings which the other contractors used for use as cook house, office, and bunk houses. He completed the camp by adding tents for use as additional sleeping quarters.

The crews began quarrying the widened heavy cut through solid rock in the Golden Gate between stations 418 and 421. The rock, obtained from the high cliffs, was blasted, put through a primary crusher and then stock piled to the left of station 409 at Swan Lake Flats. [41] The crews worked through the winter in order to avoid the traveling public during the visitor season. By the beginning of May, 1934, sufficient rock was stock piled and some surfacing had begun. By July 17, the project was complete.

The finished roadway had a 22 feet shoulder-to-shoulder width, a 4 inch base of 1-1/2 inch maximum size aggregate and 1 inch top of 1 inch maximum size aggregate. The earlier grading contract had graded the road on the 1929 standard, but on this project the super elevation on all curves conformed to the 1932 standard. The surfacing courses consisted of rhyolite. At the conclusion of the project, a palliative oil treatment was applied. A plant mixed oil course was scheduled for application during the summer of 1935. [42]

In October of 1934, Taggart Construction Company received the oiling and seal coat bid for $99,836. This project covered 36.29 miles of road, with 11.99 miles receiving a plant-mix oiled material and 24.29 miles receiving a seal coat. The contractor established his camp approximately 1000 yards left of the gravel pit which was to provide the surfacing material at station 255. A frame cook house was constructed, portable tents were used for bunkhouses and a portable building on wheels served as the office. The project required the services of about 65 men. A Pioneer Duplex crushing and screening plant was placed at the gravel pit which was approximately 1000 feet left of station 260. The crushed and screened material was stock piled nearby. [43] The project began on May 15, 1935.

Upon the completion of oil matting, the crews built masonry guard rail, performed cut slope treatment, cleaned up any slide material, obliterated old roads and borrow pits, placed top soil and planted approximately 275 trees of which 28 died. Parking areas were constructed near the Beaver Dams at station 100, at Appollinaris Spring and Roaring Mountain. The Beaver Dams parking was considered by the engineers to be a "pleasing and useful asset to the road."

The project, which extended from Mammoth Hot Springs to the Firehole Cascades was completed on September 30, 1935. With the exception for the needed construction and or/replacement on four bridges over the Gibbon River, "The smooth, wide highway, with easy curves and grades, should add greatly to the comfort and safety of the increasing volume of tourists who come to visit Yellowstone National Park each year." [44]

With the exception of bridge construction along this route, no major work was completed on the road until 1948 and 1949 when the road received another bituminous seal coat surface. The project, which was classified as a maintenance project and funded from Park funds, was awarded to Peter Kiewit Sons' Company of Sheridan, Wyoming, for a cost of $77,250.00. The park hoped that this treatment would extend the life of the existing pavement and lower the cost of maintenance on this road section. The crushed and screened material was stockpiled at locations along the route, however, the bituminous material was trucked in directly from a refinery at Cody, Wyoming. Most of the equipment and supplies were brought in from West Yellowstone or Gardiner, Montana. In order to transport the crushing and screening plant over the Madison River Bridge, the bridge had to be reinforced with the addition of eight temporary timber bents. The project was completed on August 2, 1949. [45]

The next major road project between Mammoth Hot Springs and the Firehole Cascades was the construction of the Norris Junction bypass, a project initiated by the National Park Service's Mission 66 program for FY65. The 6.32 miles long project channelized the intersection for the Grand Loop Highway and the Norris-Canyon Cutoff. The new alignment intended to provide a bypass of the Norris Museum and the Norris Geyser Basin and reduce the traffic congestion in that area.

The plans for this bypass were designed in the Region 9 Federal Highway Projects Office during the winter and spring of 1964-65. Both aerial and ground survey methods were used in siting the new alignment and automatic data processing equipment was used in its design. The mainline roadway was designed for a 38 feet graded width with 5-1/2 inches of base. The upper 1-1/2 inches of base were bituminous stabilized with a surface width of 30 feet. The two spurs road leading of the bypass were graded to a 32 feet width with a 5-1/2 inches base of which the top 1-1/2 inches were bituminous stabilized with a surface width of 24 feet. The shoulders were defined it cover aggregate resulting in a travel way of 22 feet on the main road and 20 feet on the spur roads. A 12 degree maximum curve, a 5.4% maximum grade, and minimum horizontal and vertical sight distances of 250 feet and 240 feet, respectively, were other design features.

The contract was awarded to R. J. Studer and Sons of Billings, Montana who submitted the low bid of $817,815.00. During May of 1966, subgrading began in an unstable, marshy area across from Elk Park, then moving on to a soaked peat bog near the Gibbon River. In addition to the grading operation, corrugated metal culvert pipe, vitrified clay culvert pipe, and perforated corrugated metal pipe underdrains were installed. Drop inlets, headwalls, and concrete curb and gutters were installed in October of 1966. By the end of October, 1966, the old road had been obliterated in the Norris Geyser Basin area, the areas of the old Gibbon River bridge, and the old Norris Junction. Seeding was done in one procedure with a 1,200 gallon capacity tank hydroseeder, seed, fertilizer, and green-dyed wood cellulose mulch. The one operation covered approximately 1/4 acre.

The guide posts treatment was changed from chemonite or greensalt to pentachlorophenol which produced a brown rather than green color. Other landscape details required the coloring of visible portions of concrete box culverts to be the same color as the curbs and gutters and, the removal of downed trees along part of the route. The crushed aggregate came from a pit sited to the left of station 1362+50 on Route 12, the Northeast Entrance road, the material came from an alluvial deposit and some from a highly disturbed rhyolite formation next to the alluvial deposit. A pit at Corwin Springs, Montana, provided the concrete aggregate and the cement came from the Ideal Cement Company at Three Forks, Montana. Almost all of the corrugated metal pipe, which was spot welded, came from the Bethlehem Steel Corporation. The contractor completed the project on November 7, 1966.

Upon its completion, the route now provided safer passage through this area. In the past, a common complaint and worry to Park officials was the reduced visibility caused by the steam blowing across the road from the geyser basin. The cars, which were pulled off on the road's shoulder for better viewing of the geyser basin, also caused a safety hazard. One recommendation the officials made at the end of the project was that the roadway receive a high type bituminous surface at some time in the future to replace the 1-1/2-inch thick plant-mix base which had been applied as a temporary measure. [46]