Special History:
The Environment and the Fur Trade Experience in
Voyageurs National Park, 1730-1870
Endnotes
Chapter 1
1 Daniel Francis, "Traders and Indians," in The Prairie West: Historical Readings, edited by R. Douglas Francis and Howard Palmer (Edmonton: Pica Pica Press, 1985), p. 58.
2 Eric W. Morse, Fur Trade Canoe Routes of Canada: Then and Now (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969), p. 19.
3 Arthur J. Ray, "The Northern Great Plains: Pantry of the Northwestern Fur Trade, 1774-1885," Prairie Forum, vol. 9, no. 2 (Fall 1984), pp. 263-280.
4 Tim E. Holzkamm and Leo G. Waisberg, "Agriculture and One 19th-Century Band: 'They Hardly Ever Loose Sight of Their Field,'" Papers of the Twenty-Fourth Algonquian Conference, edited by William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), pp. 407-408.
5 The best description of this fluid geography of territories is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
6 Nellis M. Crouse, La Vérendrye, Fur Trader and Explorer (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956), pp. 6-8.
7 Crouse, La Vérendrye, p. 8.
8 Crouse, La Vérendrye, p. 9.
9 Historian E. E. Rich states that the post had existed since 1713, and was "transformed into a strong fort" in 1717. E. E. Rich, Hudson's Bay Company, 1670-1870, vol. 1 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd., 1960), p. 515.
10 Crouse, La Vérendrye, p. 9; historian David Lavender cites "perennial warfare between the Sioux and Ojibwas" in Winner Take All: The Trans-Canada Canoe Trail (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977, p. 170.
11 Grace Lee Nute, Rainy River Country (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1950), p. 6. Also see, Pierre Gaultier de Varrenes de La Vérendrye, Journals and Letters, edited by Lawrence J. Burpee (Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1927).
12 Rich, Hudson's Bay Company, vol. 1, p. 518.
13 Lavender, Winner Take All, p. 186.
14 Louise Phelps Kellogg, The French Régime in Wisconsin and the Northwest (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1925), pp. 336-337. Also see Rhoda R. Gilman, "The Fur Trade in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1630-1850," Wisconsin Magazine of History 58 (Autumn 1974), pp. 3-18.
15 Rich, Hudson's Bay Company, vol. 1, pp. 520-523.
16 Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, Officer, Gentleman, Entrepreneur, trans. and ed. by Joseph L. Peyser (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1996); W. J. Eccles, "La Mer de l'Ouest: Outpost of Empire," in Rendezvous: Selected Papers of the Fourth North American Fur Trade Conference, 1981, edited by Thomas C. Buckley (St. Paul: North American Fur Trade Conference, 1984), p. 8.
17 Rich, Hudson's Bay Company, vol. 1, p. 524.
18 Gilman, "The Fur Trade in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1630-1850," pp. 8-9. Harold A. Innis notes, "Contact with the Northwest country inland from Grand Portage appears to have continued with little interruption throughout the war period. Statements with considerable authority claim that French and English traders went to Rainy Lake in 1761 and remained until 1763." The Fur Trade in Canada (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), p. 188. Duncan M'Gillivray, in his "Sketch" of the North West Company, writes: "Montreal was taken in 1760 and in the Spring of the following year some English & French traders sent goods to Lake Superior, and a few went even as far north as the Rainy lake where they continued until 1763 when the Post at Michilimackinac was taken by the Indians; who from affection to their ancient allies the French, and instigated by some traders who as well as the savages were unwilling to recognize the Capitulation, made between the French and English commanders, made war on all the posts occupied by the British from Niagara to La Baye—Sir Alexander Mackenzie says the trade did not recommence until 1766." Quoted in "Some Account of the Trade Carried on by the North West Company," in Report of the Public Archives for the year 1928, ed. by Arthur G. Doughty (Ottawa: F. A. Ackland, 1929), p. 59.
19 Kellogg, The British Régime in Wisconsin and the Northwest, pp. 103.
20 Kellogg, The British Régime in Wisconsin and the Northwest, pp. 103-104; E. E. Rich, The History of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1670-1870, vol. 2, (London: The Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1959), pp. 28-29. Note that French and British traders working in the Upper Mississippi Valley at this time tended to return east or south each summer to exchange their furs for new supplies. See Rhoda R. Gilman, "The Fur Trade in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1630-1850," Wisconsin Magazine of History 58 (1974), p. 9.
21 W. Stewart Wallace, ed., Documents Relating to the North West Company (Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1934), pp. 2-3.
22 Alexander Henry, Travels & Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, edited by James Bain (Toronto: George N. Morang & Company, 1901).
23 Quoted in Wallace, Documents Relating to the North West Company, p. 5.
24 Wallace, Documents Relating to the North West Company, pp. 5-7. Innis cited in Wallace.
25 Wallace, Documents Relating to the North West Company, pp. 9-11.
26 Wallace, Documents Relating to the North West Company, pp. 13-15.
27 Gregg A. Young, "The Organization of the Transfer of Furs at Fort William: A Study of Historical Geography," Thunder Bay Historical Museum Society Papers and Records 2 (1974), pp. 30-31.
28 Lavender, Winner Take All, p. 245. It is possible that the post was already eight or nine years old in 1787.
29 Lavender, Winner Take All, pp. 244-245.
30 Young, "The Organization of the Transfer of Furs at Fort William," p. 32. Young provides an excellent discussion of the number of days required on each leg of this complicated relay system.
31 Lavender, Winner Take All, p. 245; Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada, pp. 200-201.
32 Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada, p. 258.
33 Gordon Charles Davidson, The North West Company, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1918), p. 69. On the Hudson's Bay Company's strategy in pushing south, see Harry W. Duckworth, "The Madness of Donald Mackay," The Beaver 68, no. 3 (1988), pp. 25-42; and John Jackson, "Inland from the Bay," The Beaver 72 no. 1 (1992), pp. 37-42.
34 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journals for 1793-1794, 1794-1795, 1795-1796, and 1796-1797, Hudson's Bay Company Archives (HBCA), B.105/a/1-4.
35 Nute, Rainy River Country, pp. 15-16; A. M. Johnson, "Hudson's Bay Company on Rainy River, 1793-95," The Naturalist (1961), pp. 9-14.
36 Francis, "Traders and Indians," p. 59.
37 Francis, "Traders and Indians," p. 59.
38 Francis, "Trades and Indians," p. 60.
39 Sylvia Van Kirk, "Fur Trade Social History: Some Recent Trends," in The Prairie West: Historical Readings, p. 80.
40 Sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670-1870 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), p. 51.
41 E. E. Rich, The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1967), pp. 206-207.
42 Rich, The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857, p. 207.
43 Davidson, The North West Company, pp. 76-78, 89. See also Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Journals and Letters, edited by W. Kaye Lamb (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society Extra Series No. 41, 1970).
44 Grace Lee Nute, "Posts in the Minnesota Fur-Trading Area, 1660-1855," Minnesota History 11 (December 1930), p. 357.
45 Nute, Rainy River Country, p. 17.
46 Nute, "Posts in the Minnesota Fur-Trading Area, 1660-1855," p. 360.
47 Nute, Rainy River Country, p. 20.
48 Rich, The Fur Trade and the North West to 1857, pp. 209-235.
49 The turmoil was described in a number of tracts, some more propagandist than others. For a checklist of these contemporary accounts, see W. S. Wallace, "The Literature Relating to the Selkirk Controversy," Canadian Historical Review 13 (March 1932), pp. 45-50. See also Rich, The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857, chapters 11 and 12.
50 Nute, Rainy River Country, p. 21.
51 Nute, Rainy River Country, p. 21.
52 Grace Lee Nute, ed., Documents Relating to the Northwest Missions, 1815-1827 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1942), p. xiii.
53 Rich, The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857, pp. 227-235.
54 John S. Galbraith, "British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s," Minnesota History 36 (September 1959), pp. 241-242.
55 Galbraith, "British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s," pp. 242-245.
56 David Lavender, "Some American Characteristics of the American Fur Company," in Aspects of the Fur Trade: Selected Papers of the 1965 North American Fur Trade Conference, edited by Dale L. Morgan et al. (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1967), pp. 33-34.
57 Lavender, "Some American Characteristics of the American Fur Company," pp. 36-37.
58 Lavender, "Some American Characteristics of the American Fur Company," p. 36. Lavender also cites the American predisposition against monopoly as a factor in the different organization of the fur trade south of the international border.
59 Galbraith, "British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s," pp. 245-246. On the survey of the international boundary, see also William E. Lass, Minnesota's Boundary with Canada: Its Evolution since 1783 (Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul, 1980).
60 Galbraith, "British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s," p. 245.
61 Galbraith, "British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s," p. 244.
62 Rhoda R. Gilman, "Last Days of the Upper Mississippi Fur Trade," in People and Pelts: Selected Papers of the Second North American Fur Trade Conference, edited by Malvina Bolus (Winnipeg: Peguis Publishers, 1972), pp. 112-116.
63 Gilman, "Last Days of the Upper Mississippi Fur Trade," pp. 120-121.
64 Nute, "Posts in the Minnesota Fur-Trading Area, 1660-1855," p. 369.
65 Gilman, "Last Days of the Upper Mississippi Fur Trade," p. 126.
66 Gilman, "The Fur Trade in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1630-1850," p. 18.
67 Robert A. Trennert, "William Medill (1845-49)," in Robert M. Kvasnicka and Herman J. Viola, eds., The Commissioners of Indian Affairs, 1824-1977 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), pp. 31-35.
68 Gilman, "Last Days of the Upper Mississippi Fur Trade," p. 127.
69 Arthur J. Ray, "Some Conservation Schemes of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1821-1850: An Examination of the Problems of Resource Management in the Fur Trade," Journal of Historical Geography 1 (1975), p. 50.
70 Ray, "Some Conservation Schemes of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1821-1850," pp. 57-58. For a recent overview of Indian conservation practices in the fur trade, see Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1999), pp. 173-209.
71 Ray, "Some Conservation Schemes of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1821-1850," pp. 63-65.
72 Quoted in Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada, pp. 330-331.
73 Jack Manore, "Mr. Dawson's Road," The Beaver 6 (February/March 1991), p. 6.
74 Manore, "Mr. Dawson's Road," p. 6.
75 Manore, "Mr. Dawson's Road," p. 7.
76 Manore, "Mr. Dawson's Road," p. 8.
77 Tom Thiessen notes of "Journal" of Colonel Thomas Scott, November 23, 1871, Provincial Archives of Manitoba.
Chapter 2
1 Henry, Travels and Adventures, p. 240.
2 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, Hudson's Bay Company Archives (HBCA), B.105/a/1, fo.5.
3 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo. 37.
4 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo. 36.
5 Francis, "Traders and Indians," p. 64.
6 Quoted in Francis, "Traders and Indians," pp. 63-64.
7 Frederic Damien Huerter, "Narrative," Selkirk Papers, National Archives of Canada (NAC), Reel 4, p. 3324.
8 Anonymous, Lac La Pluie Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo.2-3. Henry Youle Hind reported in the late 1850s that some 500 to 600 Indians attended the grand medicine ceremony some years, while the number of Indians trading at the fort could reach 1500. Henry Youle Hind, Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858, (London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts, 1860), p. 83.
9 Francis, "Traders and Indians," p. 65.
10 Gilman, "Last Days of the Upper Mississippi Fur Trade," p. 126.
11 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo.5-fo.7.
12 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1796-1797, HBCA, B.105/a/4, fo.10d-fo.11.
13 See, for example, Friedrich Von Graffenreid, Sechs Jahre in Canada, 1813-1819, (Bern: Ib Haller sche Bucher, 1891), p. 10. Typescript from a handwritten translation by Elsbeth Glocker in Tom Thiessen's possession.
14 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.4d-fo.6d.
15 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1823-1824, HBCA, B.105/a/9, passim.
16 Donald McPherson, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1816-1818, HBCA, B.105/e/1, fo.10.
17 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1829-1830, HBCA, B.105/e/9, fo.4d-10.
18 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo.10-fo.11.
19 Donald McPherson to Lord Selkirk, May 14, 1817, NAC, Selkirk Papers, Reel 4, p. 3423.
20 For a study of Indian use of liquor during the fur trade, see R. C. Dailey, "The Role of Alcohol among North American Indian Tribes as reported in The Jesuit Relations," Anthropologica, vol. 10, no. 1 (1968), pp. 45-57. For a focus on liquor in trade ritual, see Bruce M. White, "A Skilled Game of Exchange: Ojibway Fur Trade Protocol," Minnesota History, vol. 50 (Summer 1987), pp. 229-240.
21 Van Kirk, "Fur Trade Social History: Some Recent Trends," pp. 71-72; and Jennifer S.H. Brown, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country, (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).
22 Graffenreid, Sechs Jahre in Canada, 1813-1819, p. 10.
23 Nute, ed., Documents Relating to Northwest Missions, 1815-1827 pp. 123-124.
24 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the North West, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1965), p. 206.
25 McLellan, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1806, NAC, Selkirk Papers, Reel 9, p. 9259.
26 Duncan M'Gillivray, The Journal of Duncan M'Gillivray of the North West Company, Ed. Arthur S. Morton. (Toronto: The MacMillan Company of Canada, Ltd., 1929), p. 8.
27 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1796-1797, HBCA, B.105/a/4, fo.7.
28 Lord Selkirk Papers, NAC, Reel 5, p. 15.
29 Masson, Les Bourgeous de la Compagne du Nord-Ouest, (New York: Antiquarian Press, Ltd., 1960), p. 309.
30 John McLoughlin, "The Indians from Fort William to Lake of the Woods," Ed. Richard H. Dillon. Amphora. 8 (Spring-Summer 1971), p. 15.
31 John Cameron, Lac Lac Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.4.
32 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8, fo.14d.
33 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1826-1828, HBCA, B.105/a/12, fo.1-1d.
34 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/a/10, fo. 3d.
35 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1826-1828, HBCA, B.105/a/12, fo.6-6d.
36 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo.13-15.
37 Robert Logan, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1818-1819, HBCA, B.105/a/6, fo.5d-8d.
38 Donald McPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo.5.
39 Donald McPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo.11-12.
40 John Francis McDermott, A Glossary of Mississippi Valley French, 1673-1850, (St. Louis: Washington University Studies, New Series, Language and Literature No. 12, 1941), p. 66.
41 Masson, Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, p. 28.
42 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1823-1824, HBCA, B.105/a/9, fo. 39.
43 Nicholas Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," in Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Second Series—Vol. VI (Ottawa: James Hope & Son, 1900), p. 126.
44 Anonymous, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo.7.
45 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 229.
46 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105/a/8, fo.11d.
47 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1829-1830 and 1830-1831, HBCA, B.105/a/14 -15, passim, quote on fo.5d.
48 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/a/10, fo.19d.
49 John Emslie, "Journal of Expedition to Fort Garry, 1870," Microfilm Collection, NAC, p. 5.
50 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 200; Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 120; Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, Robert McElroy and Thomas Riggs, eds. (New York: n.p., 1943), p. 424.
51 Ballantyne, Hudson's Bay; or Every-day Life in the Wilds of North America, (Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1848), pp. 239-240.
52 Grace L. Nute, The Voyageur, (New York and London: D. Appleton, 1931), p. 27.
53 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 122.
54 Donald McKay, Journal kept by Donald McKay on a trip to Rainy Lake in 1792, HBCA, B.3/a/93b, fo. 10-10d.
55 William Sinclair, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1834-1835, HBCA, B.105/a/19, fo.9.
56 James Evans, Diary, 1839, Minnesota History Center (MHS), Manuscript Collection P489, Box 6, p. 4.
57 Gabriel Franchere, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America. Trans. and ed. J. V. Huntington. (New York: Redfield, 1854), pp. 334-335.
58 John L. Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe Canoe, or Pictures of Travel in the Canadas. 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1850), p. 242.
59 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 123.
60 Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950); Hans Huth, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3d ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964).
61 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 426; Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 270; Sir George Simpson, Narrative of a Journey Round the World during the years 1841 and 1842, 2 vols. (London: Henry Colburn, 1847), p. 35; Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 124; Ballantyne, Hudson's Bay; or Every-day Life in the Wilds of North America, p. 237; quotation in M'Gillivray, The Journal of Duncan M'Gillivray of the North West Company, p. 9.
62 The conspicuous exception in the area of landscape appreciation is John Bigsby, who wrote lyrically about the landscape's most wild aspects. For example, Bigsby wrote of Rainy Lake: "The [northeast] horn is remarkable for the pure, smooth, porcelain whiteness of its granite hills, which are often very high, and gleam through their scanty clothing of pine in a beautiful and singular manner, while the dark forests of cypress at their feet greatly heighten the general effect....At a place where a lofty cascade falls into the lake with a loud roar, this kind of scenery is quite melodramatic. It presents a somewhat new combination of colours in landscape—white rocks, black foliage, and blue lake." Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 264.
Chapter 3
1 Mark J. Lynott, Jeffrey J. Richner, and Mona Thompson, "Archeological Investigations at Voyageurs National Park: 1979 and 1980," Midwest Archeological Center Occasional Studies in Anthropology No. 16 (Lincoln: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, 1986), pp. 283-285; Jeff Richner, comments supplied to author on draft, February 22, 2000.
2 Jeffrey J. Richner, interview with Ted Catton, October 1, 1999.
3 See Robert C. Wheeler, Walter A. Kenyon, Alan R. Woolworth, and Douglas A. Birk, Voices from the Rapids: An Underwater Search for Fur Trade Artifacts 1960-73, Minnesota Historical Archaeology Series No. 3, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1975).
4 Lavender, Winner Take All, p. 245; Young, "The Organization of the Transfer of Furs at Fort William: A Study of Historical Geography," p. 33. The arrival of a Montreal canoe at Rainy Lake Fort, with its large 11-man crew, is mentioned by Roderick McKenzie in the Lac La Pluie post journal for October 3, 1819. See Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo. 37.
5 For example, Alexander Henry the Elder mentions buying canoes from Ojibwe at the Forks on the Rainy River. Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, p. 240. Also see John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1795-1796, HBCA, B.105/a/3, fo. 29. On April 13, 1796, McKay wrote, "The Indians making small canoes. I cannot get them to go hunt Beaver. they say; they have more profit from making large Canoes for the Canadians then hunting Beaver in the spring."
6 John D. Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1829-1830, HBCA, B.105/a/14, fo. 46. Also see Donald MacPherson's letter to Lord Selkirk of October 13, 1817, in Lord Selkirk Papers, NAC, Reel C-4, p. 4128. MacPherson informed Selkirk of his intention to build as many canoes at the fort as possible in the coming spring, provided that a canoe builder could be sent from the Red River colony. He noted that there was enough bark and wattape in store for eight north canoes.
7 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal (London: R. Noble, 1801), pp. xlvii-xlviii.
8 Nute, The Voyageurs, p. 25. Sir George Simpson provides the following description of canoe construction: "The outside is formed of the thick and tough bark of the birch, the sheets being sewed together with the root of the pine-tree split into threads, and the seams gummed to make them air-tight. The gunwales are of pine or cedar of about three inches square; and in their lower edges are inserted the ribs, made of thin pieces of wood, bent to a semicircle. Between the ribs and the bark is a coating of lathing, which, besides warding off internal injury from the fragile covering, serves to impart a firmness to the vessel." Simpson, Narrative of a Journey Round the World, Vol. 1, p. 14. See also a classic work on canoes, Edwin Tappan Adney and Howard I. Chapelle, "the Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America," Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Bulletin 230, Washington, 1964.
9 Quoted in Davidson, The North West Company, pp. 216-217.
10 Young, "The Organization of the Transfer of Furs at Fort William: A Study of Historical Geography," pp. 32-34.
11 Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo. 37.
12 Davidson, The North West Company, p. 217.
13 Nute, The Voyageur, p. 26; David Szymanski, comments to author on draft, February 28, 2000. The most detailed study on this subject is the two-volume work by Tim Kent, Birchbark Canoes of the Fur Trade. It is the best-researched source available concerning all aspects of canoe design, construction, and use. The reference is from Theodore Karamanski, comments to author on draft, June 12, 2000.
14 William Sinclair, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1834-1835, HBCA, B.105/a/19, fo. 9.
15 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo. 14d.
16 Donald MacPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo. 12d.
17 Mrs. G. Scott, "Pioneer Days of Fort Frances," March 1941, Provincial Arcives of Ontario [hereafter PAO], RG 16, Series 16-87, File 15-2.
18 Robert McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo.67.
19 Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada, pp. 84-85.
20 W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier 1534-1760 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1969), p. 137.
21 Davidson, The North West Company, pp. 220-221.
22 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo. 7d.
23 White, "A Skilled Game of Exchange: Ojibway Fur Trade Protocol," pp. 229-240.
24 White, "A Skilled Game of Exchange: Ojibway Fur Trade Protocol," p. 235.
25 "Inventory of the Fur Trade, Fort Lac La Pluie, North West Co., October 1816," copy provided by Tom Thiessen.
26 Lac La Pluie Account Book for 1818-1819, HBCA, B.105/d/1, fo. 39d.
27 Lac La Pluie Account Book for 1822, HBCA, B.105/d/8, fo. 3d.
28 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1795-1796, HBCA, B.105/a/3, fo.37-39.
29 Joseph D. Winterburn, "Lac La Pluie Bill of Lading, 1806-1809," Thunder Bay Historical Museum Society, Papers and Records, Vol. 9, 1981, pp. 8-9.
30 Winterburn, "Lac La Pluie Bill of Lading, 1806-1809," p. 11.
31 Gilman, "The Fur Trade in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1630-1850," p. 13.
32 Bela Chapman Letterbook, MHS, Henry H. Sibley Papers, M164, Roll 17, pp. 20-28.
33 Jonathan Carver, Three Years Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America (Philadelphia: Key & Simpson, 1796), p. 131.
34 Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, p. 240.
35 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo. 3-5.
36 John D. Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.4.
37 Tim E. Holzkamm, Victor P. Lytwyn, and Leo G. Waisberg, "Rainy River Sturgeon: An Ojibway Resource in the Fur Trade Economy," in Aboriginal Resource Use in Canada: Historical and Legal Aspects, edited by Kerry Abel and Jean Friesen (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1991), p. 121.
38 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1795-1796, HBCA, B.105/a/3, fo. 37.
39 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1795-1796, HBCA, B.105/a/3, fo. 38d.
40 La Vérendrye, Journals and Letters of Pierre Gaultier de Varennes de la Vérendrye and his sons, p. 55; Lease, October 22, 1748, De La Vérendrye Papers, A-L399, Minnesota Historical Society.
41 Arthur Dobbs, An Account of the Countries Adjoining to Hudson's Bay in the North-west Part of America (Toronto: S. R. Publishers Limited Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1967), p. 33. Also see the footnote on the lake's nomenclature in Elliott Coues, editor, New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest (New York: Francis P. Harper, 1897), p. 18.
42 Carver, Three Years Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America, pp. 71-72.
43 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, or Pictures of Travel in the Canadas, p. 264.
44 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 125.
45 Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 19.
46 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 271.
47 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 104. The reference is by John MacDonell in 1794.
48 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 420.
49 Lac La Pluie Journal for 1819-20, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo. 20d, October 2, 1819.
50 Lac La Pluie Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/a/10, fo. 6, January 22, 1825.
51 Peter Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs (New York: Peter Jacobs, 1857), p. 30.
52 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 421.
53 Stephen H. Long, The Northern Expeditions of Stephen H. Long: The Journals of 1817 and 1823 and Related Documents, edited by Lucile M. Kane, June D. Holmquist, and Carolyn Gilman (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1978), pp. 217-218.
54 Justus A. Griffin, "From Toronto to Fort Garry: An Account of the Second Expedition to Red River," Evening Times (Hamilton, Ontario, 1872), p. 33.
55 Long, The Northern Expeditions, pp. 217-218.
56 Alexander Henry the Younger made note of it in his journal of 1800, edited and published by Elliott Coues in 1897. Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 18. Coues erred in construing this portage to be Gold Portage between Kabetogama Lake and Black Bay. See his footnotes 20 and 21, pp. 17-18.
57 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lv.
58 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 125.
59 Long, The Northern Expeditions, p. 217.
60 S. J. Dawson, Report of the Exploration of the Country between the latter place and the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan, (Toronto: John Lovell, 1859), p. 81.
61 Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs, p. 30.
62 Tom Thiessen notes on "Journal of John Louis Hubert Neilson," NAC, MG 29 E, vol. 37, June 27, 1871; "Diaries of Josiah Jones Bell," PAO, microfilm, August 7, 1870. G. L. Huyshe referred to "New Portage" in The Red River Expedition (New York: MacMillan and Co., 1871), pp. 132-133.
63 Mary Graves, comments to author on draft, February 22, 2000.
64 Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 17. See also Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lv.
65 Charles Whittlesey, "Valley of the Rainy Lake," Western Reserve Historical Society [hereafter WRHS], p. 56. Coues writes that Sand Point Lake was named for Pointe de Sable, which Henry Alexander the Younger noted in his journal of 1800. Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 17.
66 Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 19.
67 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 202.
68 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 421.
69 International Boundary Commission, Joint Report Upon the Survey and Demarcation of the Boundary between the United States and Canada from the Northwestern Point of Lake of the Woods to Lake Superior (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931), pp. 385-386. On lob sticks, see Nute, The Voyageur, p. 67.
70 Mary Graves, comments to author on draft, February 22, 2000.
71 Long, The Northern Expeditions, p. 217.
72 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 123.
73 Note that a 1916 survey and report for the International Joint Commission found two buildings belonging to Harry Smith at this location. Adolph F. Meyer and Arthur V. White, Report to International Joint Commission relating to Official Reference re Lake of the Woods Levels (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917), p. 21.
74 John Emslie, "Journal of Expedition to Fort Garry, 1870," Microfilm Collection, NAC.
75 Griffin, From Toronto to Fort Garry, pp. 31-32.
76 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 123.
77 Lord Selkirk to Donald McPherson, February 22, 1817, NAC, Lord Selkirk Papers, Vol. 10, p. 3189 (Reel 4).
78 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," pp. 121-123.
79 James Anderson, "Journal of a Trip," [1850], Microfilm Collection, NAC.
80 S. J. Dawson, Report on the Red River Expedition of 1870 (Ottawa: Times Printing and Publishing Co., 1871), passim.
81 Hind, Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858, p. 217.
82 Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, pp. 132-133.
83 Mary Graves, comments to author on draft, February 22, 2000.
84 Davidson, The North West Company, p. 238.
85 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lvi.
86 Jeff Richner, comments to author on draft, February 22, 2000.
87 Nute, Rainy River Country, p. 8.
88 Daniel Williams Harmon, A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America (Toronto: The Courier Press, Ltd., 1911), p. 19.
89 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lvi.
90 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, fo.1.
91 Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, p. 20.
92 Franchere, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, p. 335.
93 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 205.
94 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, pp. 214, 218.
95 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1795-1796, HBCA, B.105a/3, fos. 4d, 5d. McKay noted that the chimneys had to be rebuilt each year as they would usually burn up before the winter was over. But he recorded a new method of construction. "I place the 4 uprites 2 fast farther from one another, then I realy mean to Build the Chimney then I tie the cross bars as in other Chimney of this kind only stronger to support the Clay which is a foot on every square from the uprites then when the Clay is dry which becomes as hard as stones I take away the uprites from the Chimney and if I chose may hawl out the crossbars; then the Chimney stands without a bit of wood in her—and when those holes are filled up with well worked Clay that is occasioned by taking away the crossbars; and the Chimney washed with clean Clay about as thick as water grease. it will have all the appearance of a stone Chimney well pasterd." (Fo. 11).
96 Nute, ed., Documents Relating to Northwest Missions, 1815-1827, p. 124.
97 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 126. Roderick McKenzie referred to the moose skin as "parchments." See Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B. 105/a/7, fo. 39.
98 Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, p. 137; George Adshead, Journal, Manitoba Provincial Archives.
99 G. Scott, "Pioneer Days of Fort Frances," PAO, Record Group 16, Series 16-87, File 15-2.
100 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 206.
101 Elizabeth Knudson Steiner and Robert Alan Clouse, "Historical Research and Archaeological Investigations Relating to the Bourassa Site on Crane Lake, Minnesota," Archaeology Department, Minnesota Historical Society, 1994, passim.
102 Nute, "Hudson's Bay Company Posts in the Minnesota Country," Minnesota History 22 (Summer, 1941), p. 275.
103 Lord Selkirk to Donald McPherson, March 6, 1817, Selkirk Papers, NAC, Reel 4, p. 3234.
104 Nute, "Hudson's Bay Company Posts in the Minnesota Country," p. 275.
105 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo.20d.
106 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105a/8, fo.1d.
107 Gerald Robert Vizenor, ed., "Clement H. Beaulieu's Sketch of the Fur-Trade Around Lake Superior," in Escorts to White Earth, 1868 to 1968: 100 Year Reservation (Minneapolis: Four Winds, 1968), p. 67.
108 Clarissa Headline and Milton N. Gallup, "The Diary of an Early Fur Trader," Inland Seas: Quarterly Journal of the Great Lakes Historical Society 19, no. 2 (Summer 1963), pp. 114-118.
109 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2, fo.4.
110 Lac La Pluie Account Book, HBCA, B.105/d/67, fos. 1d-2.
111 James Anderson, "Journal of a Trip," NAC, p. 94. Possibly this plant was the wild grape.
112 Donald MacPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo.10; Robert Logan, Lac La Pluie Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/6, fo. 25d; Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, fo. 21.
113 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, fo. 70d.
114 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 422.
115 Donald MacPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo.4.
116 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo.39.
117 J. D. Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/a/10, fo.6.
118 Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs, p. 30.
119 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lv.
120 Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs, p. 30.
121 James Anderson, diary, NAC, p. 94.
122 Ballantyne, Hudson's Bay; or Every-day Life in the Wilds of North America, pp. 240-242.
123 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 421.
124 Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs, p. 30.
125 Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, p. 240.
126 John MacDonell, Journal (transcription). Manuscripts Collection, Minnesota Historical Society, p. 103.
127 Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 17.
128 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1823-1824, HBCA, B.105/a/9, p. 94.
129 James Edwin, ed., A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, (London: Baldwin and Cradock, 1830), p. 65.
130 Graffenreid, Sechs Jahre in Canada, p. 116.
131 Mrs. G. Scott, "Pioneer Days of Fort Frances," March 1941, PAO, RG 16, Series 16-87, File 15-2.
132 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 125; Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, pp. 419-421.
133 John Irvine, Report on the Red River Expedition of 1870 (London: Harrison and Sons, 1871), pp. 8, 14; Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, Appendix F.
134 John Emslie, "Journal of Expedition to Fort Garry, 1870," Microfilm Collection, NAC.
135 Josiah Jones Bell, Diary, Manitoba Provincial Archives.
136 H.S. H. Riddell, "The Red River Expedition of 1870," Transactions of the Literary and Historical Soceity of Quebec, Session of 1870-71, (Quebec: Middleton and Dawson, 1871), p. 119.
137 John Emslie, "Journal of Expedition to Fort Garry, 1870," Microfilm Collection, NAC.
138 Jeff Richner, comments to author on draft, February 22, 2000.
139 Thomas Vennum, Jr., Wild Rice and the Ojibway People (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1988), pp. 198-199.
140 Vennum, Wild Rice and the Ojibway People, p. 199.
141 Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, p. 242.
142 Tim E. Holzkamm, "Ojibwa Horticulture in the Upper Mississippi and Boundary Waters," in Actes du Dix-Septi¸me Congrés des Algonquinistes, edited by William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1986), p. 149.
143 R. N. Back, Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition (London: John Murray, 1836), p. 40.
144 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lv.
145 Long, The Northern Expeditions, p. 217.
146 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 125.
147 Franchere, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, p. 336.
148 Frederick Ulric Graham, Notes of a Sporting Expedition in the Far West of Canada, 1847 (London: Hermione Graham, 1898), p. 23.
149 Delafield, The Unfortified Boundary, p. 422.
150 Holzkamm and Waisberg, "Agriculture and One 19th-Century Ojibwa Band: 'They Hardly Ever Loose Sight of Their Field,'" p. 408.
151 Holzkamm, "Ojibwa Horticulture in the Upper Mississippi and Boundary Waters," p. 144.
152 Holzkamm and Waisberg, "Agriculture and One 19th-Century Ojibwa Band: 'They Hardly Ever Loose Sight of Their Field,'" pp. 418-420.
153 Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs, p. 30.
154 Josiah Jones Bell, Diaries, Ontario Provincial Archives, Toronto.
155 Franchere, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, p. 335.
156 Donald MacPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo. 14d.
157 William H. Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, Lake Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, etc., 2 vols. (London: Geo. B. Whittaker, Ave-Marie Lane, 1825), p. 125.
158 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo. 30d.
159 Charles Whittlesey, Papers, Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio.
160 Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, p. 139.
161 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 219.
162 "Inventory of the Fur Trade, Fort Lac La Pluie, North West Co., October 1816," copy provided by Tom Thiessen.
163 Donald MacPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo. 9.
164 John D. Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1829-1830, HBCA, B.105/a/14, fo. 14d.
165 Fort Frances Post Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo. 22d.
166 Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, p. 139.
167 J. D. Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1829-1830, HBCA, B.105/a/14, fo. 6.
168 Fort Frances Post Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo. 3.
169 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," pp. 122-123.
170 Robert Logan, Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/6, fo. 19d.
171 Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, pp. 151-152; Griffin, From Toronto to Fort Garry: An Account of the Second Expedition to Red River, p. 36.
172 Grace Rajnovich, "Rescue Excavations of the Boise Cascade Burials (DdKi-2) in Fort Frances, Ontario," Conservation Archaeology Report, Northwestern Region, Report No. 6, 1985, p. 5; Jeffrey Chartrand, "The Osteology and Trace Element Analysis of DdKi-2, Fort Frances, Ontario," Ontario Ministry of Culture and Communications, Field Services Branch, Northern Region, Conservation Archaeology Report No. 17, 1992, p. 18.
Chapter 4
1 Public Law 91-661.
2 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1796-1797, HBCA, B.105/a/4, fo.8-10.
3 Anonymous, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1840-1841, HBCA, B.105/a/21, fo.1-10d.
4 Donald McPherson, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1817-1818, HBCA, B.105/a/5, fo.14d.
5 Robert Logan, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1818-1819, HBCA, B.105/a/6, fo.17d.
6 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo.63d.
7 John Cameron, Extracts from Lac La Pluie Reports, 1823-1827, HBCA, B.105/e/8, fo.2.
8 John McLoughlin, "The Indians from Fort William to Lake of the Woods," Manuscript 2364, Rare Books and Special Collections Division, McGill University Libraries, Montreal.
9 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo.68d.
10 Hind, Narrative on the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858, pp. 82-83.
11 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1823-1824, HBCA, B.105/a/9, pp. 45-47.
12 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/a/10, fo.12d.
13 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/a/10, fo.15-15d.
14 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/e/4.
15 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.1.
16 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1834-1835, HBCA, B.105/e/11, fo.1.
17 Anonymous, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo.10.
18 Hind, Narrative on the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858, p. 75.
19 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 269.
20 Griffin, From Toronto to Fort Garry: An Account of the Second Expedition to Red River, pp. 32-33.
21 Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, pp. 125-126.
22 David Thompson, Journals, Provincial Archives of Ontario, MS 25, Reel 6, Bound Volume 36, D.T. Volume 76.
23 Adolph F. Meyer and Arthur V. White, Report to International Joint Commission relating to Official Reference re Lake of the Woods Levels, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917.
24 International Joint Commission Supplementary Order for Rainy and Namakan Lakes, January 6, 2000.
25 John MacDonell, Journal (transcription), MHS, Manuscripts Division, pp. 24-25.
26 M'Gillivray, The Journal of Duncan M'Gillivray of the North West Company, p. 8.
27 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, p. 216.
28 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.3.
29 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 267.
30 Simpson, Narrative of a Journey Round the World, p. 40.
31 Albert M. Swain, "Vegetation and Fire History at Voyageurs National Park," final report prepared for National Park Service Midwest Archeological Center by the Center for Climatic Research, Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin, no date; Glen F. Cole, "Effects of Man on the Vegetation and Wildlife of Voyageurs National Park," Voyageurs National Park, International Falls, Minnesota, 1980; Michael S. Coffman, Lawrence Rakestraw, and James E. Ferris, "The Fire and Logging History of Voyageurs National Park," final report prepared for National Park Service by Michigan Technological University, 1980; Vilis Kurmis, L.C. Merriam, Jr., Myron Grafstrom, and Jeffrey Kirwan, "Primary Plant Communities: Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota," College of Forestry, University of Minnesota, 1978.
32 Dobbs, An Account of the Countries Adjoining to Hudson's Bay in the North-west Part of America, p. 33.
33 Henry, Travels and Adventures, p. 240.
34 Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal, p. lvii.
35 Harmon, A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, p. 19.
36 Harmon, A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, p. 20.
37 McLoughlin, "The Indians from Fort William to Lake of the Woods," p. 10.
38 Long, The Northern Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, p. 212.
39 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 264.
40 Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of the St. Peter's River, p. 124.
41 John McLean, John McLean's Notes of a Twenty-Five Year's Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory, edited by W. S. Wallace (Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1932), p. 124.
42 Charles Whittlesey Papers, Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio, p. 57.
43 Jacobs, Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs, pp. 30-31.
44 Hind, Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857, p. 81.
45 Huyshe, The Red River Expedition, p. 138.
46 Paul Kane, Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, and Roberts, 1859), p. 63.
47 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1830-1831, HBCA B. 105/a/15, fo.11d.
48 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1793-1794, HBCA, B.105/a/1, passim.
49 John McKay, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1795-1796, HBCA, B.105/a/3, passim.
50 McLoughlin, "The Indians from Fort William to Lake of the Woods."
51 Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, p. 125.
52 Long, The Northern Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, p. 208.
53 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.1.
54 Hind, Narrative on the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858, p. 55.
55 Anonymous, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo. 11d.
56 Hind, Narrative on the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857 and of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1858, p. 55.
57 Duncan Graham to Lord Selkirk, December 7, 1816, Selkirk Papers, Reel C-3, NAC, p. 2980.
58 Simon M'Gillivray, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1824-1825, HBCA, B.105/e/4, fo.4.
59 Graffenreid, Sechs Jahre in Canada, pp. 12-13.
60 Garry, "Diary of Nicholas Garry," p. 120.
61 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 271.
62 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105/e/3, fo.3.
63 Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, p. 125.
64 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.1.
65 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1829-1830, HBCA, B.105/a/14, fo.49.
66 Anonymous, Fort Frances post journal for 1837-1838, HBCA, B.105/a/20, fo.24d.
67 Jeanne Kay, "Native Americans in the Fur Trade and Wildlife Depletion," Environmental Review 9 (April 1985), p. 121.
68 Carver, Three Years Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, p. 72.
69 Anonymous, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.1.
70 William Sinclair, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1834-1835, HBCA, B.105/a/19, fo.14d.
71 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.2.
72 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2, fo.1d.
73 John McLoughlin, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1822-1823, HBCA, B.105/e/2, fo.1d.
74 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1824-1825, HBCA, B. 105/a/10, fo.12d.
75 C.A. Johnston, J. Pastor, and R. J. Naiman, "Effects of beaver and moose on boreal forest landscapes," In Landscape Ecology and Geographic Information Systems. S. H. Cousins, B. Haines-Young, and D. Green, eds. London: Taylor & Francis, year?
76 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie District Report for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.2d.
77 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, p. 264.
78 Bigsby, The Shoe and Canoe, pp. 251-252.
79 H. E. Pearson, untitled report on the history of commercial fishing in the Rainy Lake area, on file in Voyageurs National Park, December 1963[?], passim.
80 J. R. Chevalier, "Changes in Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) Population in Rainy Lake and Factors in Abundance, 1924-75," Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada 34 (1977), pp. 1696-1698.
81 For example, see Holzkamm, Lytwyn, and Waisberg, "Rainy River Sturgeon: An Ojibway Resource in the Fur Trade Economy," pp. 119-140; Tim E. Holzkamm, "Sturgeon Utilization by the Rainy River Ojibwa Bands," Papers of the Eighteenth Algonquian Conference, edited by William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University, 1987), pp. 155-163.
82 Tanner, A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, pp. 78-79.
83 Roderick McKenzie, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1819-1820, HBCA, B.105/a/7, fo.37d.
84 Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, p. 125.
85 John Cameron, Lac La Pluie Post Journal for 1825-1826, HBCA, B.105/e/6, fo.3d.
86 Gates, ed., Five Fur Traders of the Northwest, pp. 216-218.
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