Notes

1. Archeologists have proposed several different theories about the prehistoric peoples of the Verde Valley. These theories speculate about the presence, activities, and interactions of the Hohokam, Sinagua, and Hakataya groups in the region. A brief discussion of some of these theories accompanies the section in this chapter on recent archeological research activities. A more detailed treatment of these topics is best left to the archeological literature. Studies that deal with the prehistory of the Verde Valley include David A. Breternitz, Excavations at Three Sites in the Verde Valley, Arizona (Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, 1960); Harold S. Colton, Prehistoric Culture Units and Their Relationships in Northern Arizona (Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, 1939); Harold S. Colton, The Sinagua: A Summary of the Archaeology of the Region of Flagstaff, Arizona, Bulletin no. 22 (Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, 1946); Christian E. Downum, "The Sinagua," Plateau 63, no. 1 (1992): 2—32; Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology; Peter J. Pilles Jr., "The Southern Sinagua," Plateau 53, no. 1 (1981): 6—17; Albert H. Schroeder, "Man and Environment in the Verde Valley," Landscape 3, no. 2 (1953): 16—19; Albert H. Schroeder, The Hohokam, Sinagua, and the Hakataya, Archives of Archeology no. 5 (Menasha, Wis.: Society for American Archaeology; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960); Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey.

2. Hammond and Rey, Expedition into New Mexico, 105—6; Albert Schroeder, "A Brief History of the Yavapai of the Middle Verde Valley," Plateau 24, no. 1 (1952), 112.

3. Bolton, Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 187.

4. Three different hypotheses about the origins of the Yavapai are summarized in Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 39—40.

5. Examples of such confusion between Yavapai and Apache groups are presented in Schroeder, "A Brief History."

6. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 40—41.

7. Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey, 103.

8. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 49.

9. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 45—47.

10. The classic example of the attitude that viewed American Indians as little more than features of the vacant frontier landscape waiting to be settled and improved is articulated in Frederick Jackson Turner's 1893 essay, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History." A reprint of this essay, along with a foreword by historian Wilbur R. Jacobs, is included in Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986).

11. Thomas E. Sheridan, Arizona: A History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995), 69—71.

12. Munson, "Territorial Verde Valley," 27.

13. Pat Stein, "The Yavapai and Tonto Apache," Plateau 53 (1981), 21.

14. Munson, "Territorial Verde Valley," 28; Stein, "The Yavapai and Tonto Apache," 21.

15. William T. Corbusier, Verde to San Carlos (Tucson: Dale Stuart King, 1969), 17, 184, 260, cited in Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 41; Stein, "The Yavapai and Tonto Apache," 21—23.

16. Although most of the American Indians living on the Rio Verde Reservation were relocated in 1875, Kera and Mariella ("The Yavapai," 41) note that some Yavapai escaped during the trip to San Carlos, while others remained behind. Those who remained behind stayed within their traditional territories and earned meager livings by farming or working for European American settlers.

17. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 41; Stein, "The Yavapai and Tonto Apache," 23.

18. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 41—42.

19. Ibid., 43.

20. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 43; Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indians: Of Arizona, of Nevada, of Utah, an Informational Profile (Phoenix: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1994), 81—82, cited in Teresita Majewski, "Historical Profiles of the Apache and Yavapai Reservations in Arizona," in Vanishing River: Landscapes and Lives of the Lower Verde Valley, ed. Stephanie M. Whittlesey, Richard Ciolek-Torrello, and Jeffrey H. Altschul (Tucson: SRI Press, 1997), 329—30.

21. Stein, "The Yavapai and Tonto Apache," 23.

22. Khera and Mariella, "Yavapai," 51.

23. William Back, interview by Albert Schroeder, NPS archeologist, 24 May 1947, transcript, Western Archeological and Conservation Center, Tucson.

24. Beckman, "A History of Montezuma Well." In the third chapter of this manuscript, Beckman presents details of his interactions with American Indians who have visited Montezuma Well during the past thirty-odd years. He shares some of the legends and stories that they told and describes the different rituals they performed while visiting the Well.

25. Mindeleff, "Aboriginal Remains," 179—261; Fewkes, "Archeological Expedition," 519—46; Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology, 31—32; Lister and Lister, Those Who Came Before, 172.

26. Schroeder's account of his visit with Hopi priests is quoted on pages 34—35 of Jack Beckman's unpublished manuscript "A History of Montezuma Well."

27. Montezuma Castle National Monument, administrative files, H-14.

28. For a more detailed discussion of Cummings and Colton's contributions, see Stephanie Whittlesey, "An Overview of Research History and Archaeology of Central Arizona," in Vanishing River: Landscapes and Lives of the Lower Verde Valley, ed. Stephanie Whittlesey, Richard Ciolek-Torrello, and Jeffrey H. Altschul (Tucson: SRI Press, 1997), 66—71.

29. Colton, The Sinagua; Whittlesey, "An Overview," 69.

30. Albert H. Schroeder, "Did the Sinagua of the Verde Valley Settle in the Salt River Valley?" Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 3 (1947): 230—46.

31. Albert H. Schroeder, "Man and Environment in the Verde Valley," Landscape 3, no.2 (1953): 16—19.

32. Albert H. Schroeder, "The Hakataya Cultural Tradition," American Antiquity 23 (1957): 176—78; Schroeder, The Hohokam, Sinagua, and Hakataya.

33. Albert H. Schroeder, "History of Archeological Research," in Southwest, edited by A. Ortiz, vol. 9 of Handbook of North American Indians, W C. Sturtevant, general editor (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1979), 11—13.

34. Charles R. McGimsey III, "Head Waters: How the Post-War Boom Boosted Archeology," Common Ground: Archeology and Ethnography in the Public Interest 31, no. 2 (summer—fall 1998): 18—20.

35. McGimsey, "Head Waters," 20; Schroeder, "History of Archeological Research," 12.

36. Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology, 6.

37. Whittlesey, "An Overview of Research History," 60—61; Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology, 25—26.

38. For information about archeological investigations in the Verde Valley at sites outside of Montezuma Castle National Monument, see Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology; Whittlesey, "An Overview of Research History"; and Calvin R. Cummings, "A Survey of the Archaeological Potential of the Upper Verde Valley, Arizona," (unpublished manuscript, 1966), on file at the Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office.

39. The information presented in this table is from Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey, 10—12. More detailed information about these projects and earlier archeological research projects done at Montezuma Castle National Monument is on file at the National Park Service Western Archeological and Conservation Center in Tucson, Arizona.

40. William Back, interview by Albert Schroeder, NPS Archeologist, 24 May 1947. In this interview, Back relates details of the many different excavations he did over the years in the vicinity of Montezuma Well, Of special interest, he recalled excavating twenty-eight vault burials "in the flats" and thirty-two child burials on the south side of the Well near the small pueblo. At the end of the transcript, Albert Schroeder provided descriptions of some of the artifacts in Back's collection, including ceramics, a wooden paddle, portions of woven baskets, and woven sandals. This interview contains detailed accounts of many of the natural and prehistoric features around Montezuma Well and the Back family's historic activities in the area. The fact file at Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office mentions Back family members' activities prior to 1947 and later reports of vandalism that impacted prehistoric resources in the vicinity of Montezuma Well.

41. Todd W. Bostwick, "Albert Henry Schroeder (1914-1993)," Kiva 60, no, 3 (spring 1995): 443—45. For a good overview of Schroeder's theories about the Hakataya culture, see Albert H. Schroeder, "Prehistory: Hakataya," in Southwest, edited by A. Ortiz, vol. 9 of Handbook of North American Indians, W. C. Sturtevant, general editor (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1979), 100—7.

42. Fish and Fish. Verde Valley Archaeology, 36—37; Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey, 9.

43. Montezuma Castle National Monument, fact file; Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology, 33; Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 9.

44. Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology, 37. Details about the results of Breternitz's excavations are included in Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey, 67—69.

45. Breternitz, Excavations at Three Sites; Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 67; "Pithouse Reveals Previous Culture," Verde Independent, 15 September 1960, sec. 1. 6.

46. Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey, 46—48; Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology, 38.

47. Hugh Cutler and Lawrence Kaplan, "Some Plant Remains from Montezuma Castle and Nearby Caves (NA4007B and C on Dry Beaver Creek)," Plateau 28, no, 4 (1956): 98—100; Lisa W. Huckell, "Archeobotanical Remains from Montezuma Castle National Monument, Arizona," appendix to The Tuzigoot Survey and Three Small Verde Valley Projects, by Martyn D. Tagg, Publications in Anthropology, no. 40, (Tucson: Western Archeological and Conservation Center, 1986), 135—49.

48. Earl Jackson and Sallie Pierce Van Valkenburgh, Montezuma Castle Archeology Part I: Excavations and Conclusions, Technical Series, no. 3 (Globe, Ariz.: Southwestern Monuments Association, 1954); Katherine Bartlett, "Crania from Montezuma Castle and Well," appendix in Jackson and Van Valkenburgh, Montezuma Castle Archeology Part I; Kate Peck Kent, Montezuma Castle Archeology Part II: Textiles, Technical Series, no. 3 (Globe, Ariz.: Southwestern Monuments Association, 1954); Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 29.

49. Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 13.

50. Tagg, Tuzigoot Survey 99—105.

51. Tagg, Tuzigoot Survey 106—12, 133—34; Huckell, "Archeobotanical Remains," 135-48.

52. Tagg, Tuzigoot Survey 99.

53. Tagg, Tuzigoot Survey 113—30.

54. For more specific details about the passage of the NHPA and the implications of its various provisions, see Barry Mackintosh, The National Historic Preservation Act and the National Park Service: A History (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, History Division, 1986); William J. Murtaugh, Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America (New York: Sterling, 1993); and James A. Glass, The Beginnings of o New National Historic Preservation Program, 1957 to 1969 (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1990).

55. For additional information about these laws and others related to NPS cultural resource management activities, see Napier Shelton and Lissa Fox, An Introduction to Selected Laws Important for Resource Management in the National Park Service (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1994), 21; and the NPS website with information on public archeology in the United States: http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/timeline.

56. Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 1—2, 111—16.

57. Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 121, 223—29.

58. Fish and Fish, Verde Valley Archaeology 25—27. It should be noted that this 1977 report was funded by the National Park Service and contracted to the Museum of Northern Arizona. Because the report was prepared for the NPS Fish and Fish directed most of the recommendations to the agency in regard to its management of the Verde Valley national monument units,

59. Ibid., 28.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. In fiscal year 1999, the monument administration provided funds for the study of these prehistoric irrigation canals, as Wells and Anderson recommended. Archeologists from the NPS Western Archeological and Conservation Center are performing the work and are expected to complete it by the end of the year 2000.

63. Wells and Anderson, Archeological Survey 117.

64. Ibid., 228—29.

65. Ibid., 143-AS.

66. SWAC was one of the few remaining portions of Frank Pinkley's original Southwestern National Monuments unit that was not absorbed by the NPS regional office in Santa Fe. SWAC operated out of Globe, Arizona, and sent out crews to provide archeology and stabilization services to regional NPS sites before eventually moving to Tucson as the Western Archeological and Conservation Center (WACC). Clemenson, Casa Grande Ruins, 176; Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office, fact file,

67. Montezuma Castle National Monument Master Plan, 1964—65, Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office.

68. Such suggestions are included in draft versions of monument master plans from 1958 and 1961 on file at the Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office,

69. Glen Henderson, interview by Josh M. Protas, 11 April 1997. Montezuma Castle National Monuments Oral History Project, Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office.

70. Montezuma Castle National Monument, Natural and Cultural Resources Management Plan, February 1996, p. I-21; Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office.

71. Kathleen Fiero, Preservation Maintenance, Montezuma Castle National Monument, May 1997; Kathleen Fiero, Draft Preservation Maintenance, Montezuma Castle National Monument, December 1997. Copies of both of these reports are on file at the Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office. The report from May 1997 includes numerous photographs of the project work.

72. Kathleen Fiero, Draft Preservation Maintenance, Montezuma Castle National Monument, December 1997, 1. This report includes a detailed discussion of the controversy surrounding the replastering work done at Montezuma Castle.

73. Vanishing Treasures Ruins Preservation Program, Montezuma Castle National Monument Project Proposal Form, FY98, on file at the Montezuma Castle and Tuzigoot National Monuments administrative office.

74. Glen Henderson, personal communication, 27 March 1999.

75. Glen Henderson, interview by Josh M. Protas, 11 April 1997.