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MANZANAR
Historic Resource Study/Special History Study |
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ENDNOTES
Introduction
1. Material for the Introduction was obtained from the following sources: 106 Stat, 40, Public Law 102-248, March 3, 1992; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, First Session, on H.R. 543, To Establish the Manzanar National Historic Site in the State of California, and for Other Purposes, H.R. 2351, To Authorize a Study of Nationally Significant Places in Japanese American History, Hearing Held in Washington, D.C., May 21, 1991 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1993), pp. 1-70; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Establishing the Manzanar National Historic Site In The State Of California, And For Other Purposes, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., H. Rept. 102-125, 1991, pp. 1-10; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Establishing The Manzanar National Historic Site In The State Of California, And For Other Purposes, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rept. 102-236, 1991, pp. 1-9; State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Manzanar: Feasibility Study, September 1974, pp. 1-11; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Nomination Form, "Manzanar War Relocation Camp," prepared by Erwin N. Thompson, August 12, 1984; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Manzanar National Historic Site, California: Draft General Management Plan & Environmental Impact Statement, December 1995; and An Annotated Bibliography for Manzanar National Historic Site, Prepared by Arthur A. Hansen, Debra Gold Hansen, Sue Kunitomi Embrey, Jane C. Wehrey, Garnette Long, and Kathleen Frazee, Prepared for the National Park Service, Denver Service Center, Manzanar National Historic Site, #5370000.094, Subconsultant Agreement with Jones & Jones, A Professional Service Corporation, Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton, February 1995.
Chapter One
1. Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, University of California Press, 1962), p. 106. For a historical overview of Japanese emigration and its attendant problems in California see Andrew F. Rolle, California: A History (2d ed., Arlington Heights, Illinois, AHM Publishing Corporation, 1969), pp, 389-394.
2. S. W. Kung, Chinese In American Life: Some Aspects of Their History, Status, Problems, and Contributions (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1962), p. 30, and Richard B. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History: Bicentennial Edition (New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1976), pp. 654-56.
3. Ibid., and William Petersen, Japanese Americans: Oppression and Success (New York, Random House, 1971), pp. 31-32.
4. Dictionary of American History, (Rev. ed., New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976), III, p. 341-42; Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History, pp. 654-56; and Petersen, Japanese Americans, pp. 31-32.
5. Midori Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County, 1940-1950 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1955), pp. 13-14.
6. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History, p. 352, and Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 17-18, 20-21.
7. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 14-16.
8. U.S. Bureau of Immigration, and Naturalization. Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industries, Part 25, vol.23 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 37.
9. Ibid., p, 61; Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 18-20; and David Lavender, California: A Bicentennial History (New York and Nashville, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., and American Association for State and Local History, 1978, p. 189.
10. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History, p. 657.
11. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, pp. 106-07.
12. Petersen, Japanese Americans, p. 32.
13. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History, p. 352, 657; and Petersen, Japanese Americans, pp. 32-33.
14. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History, p. 352, and Dictionary of American History, VII, pp. 356-57.
15. Ibid., and Dictionary of American History, III, p. 492.
16. Quoted in Raymond L. Buell, Japanese Immigration (Boston, World Peace Foundation Pamphlet, 1924), VII, p. 359.
17. Isami Arifuku Waugh and Alex Yamato, "A History of Japanese Americans in California," in Isami Arifuku Waugh, Alex Yamato, and Raymond Y. Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California (Sacramento, State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Office of Historic Preservation, 1988), p. 162.
18. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, pp. 63-64, 87-88; Stephen S. Fugita and David J. O'Brien, Japanese American Ethnicity: The Persistance of Community (Seattle and London, University of Washington Press, 1991), p. 8; Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California, pp. 164-66, 171,193-94; Lavender, California, pp. 189-90; and Yamato Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States (London and Stanford, California, Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press and Stanford University Press, 1932), p. 124.
19. Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, History of Japanese Americans in California, p. 171.
21. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, p. 98.
22. Quoted in Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, p. 99.
23. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History, p. 657, and Dictionary of American History, III, p. 492.
24. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, p. 105.
25. Lavender, California, p. 191.
Chapter Two
1. For more information on the transfer of Japanese from Hawaii to the mainland see Stetson Conn, Rose C, Engelman, and Byron Fairchild, United States Army in World War II: The Western Hemisphere, Guarding the United States and Its Outposts (Washington, United States Army, Office of the Chief of Military History, 1964), pp. 206-16.
2. Three of the best sources for this subject are Conn, et al., Guarding the United States. pp. 115-49, and Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Washington, Government Printing Office, December 1982); and Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps USA: Japanese Americans and World War II (Hinsdale, Illinois, The Dryden Press, 1972). For a comparison study of Japanese exclusion and evacuation from the military point of view, see U.S. War Department, Final Report: Japanese Evacuation From the West Coast, 1942 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943. A history of Japanese exclusion and evacuation from the viewpoint of the War Relocation Authority may be found in U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, WRA: A Story of Human Conservation (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), and Ibid., Wartime Exile: The Exclusion of the Japanese Americans From the West Coast, by Ruth E. McKee (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), pp. 97-167.
3. Dorothy Swaine Thomas and Richard S. Nishimoto, The Spoilage (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1946), p. 1.
4. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 115-16.
5. Pre-Pearl Harbor archival documents dealing with discussions between the War and Justice departments over responsibilities for enemy aliens in case of war and with internal Army communications about construction of accommodations for enemy aliens and interned merchant seamen may be found in Roger Daniels, ed., American Concentration Camps: A Documentary History of the Relocation and Incarceration of Japanese Americans, 1942-1945 (9 vols., New York and London, Garland Publishing, 1989), Vol. 1, Part 1. Although the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor precipitated the movement for exclusion and evacuation of persons of Japanese ancestry from the west coast during World War II, it is significant to note a White House memorandum written by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 10, 1936. Discussing the surveillance of people of Japanese descent on the Hawaiian island of Oahu, Roosevelt demanded that a list of people under surveillance be kept so that the suspected problem people would "be the first to be placed in a concentration camp in the event of trouble," Record Group 181, Records of Naval Districts and Shore Establishments, 14th Naval District, Commandants Office, General Correspondence, 1925-42, File No. A8-5, Document 20, National Archives and Records Administration, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno.
6. Personal Justice Denied, p. 55; Thomas and Nashimoto Spoilage, p. 5; and ten Brock, Jacobus, Edward N. Barnhart, and Floyd W. Matson, Prejudice, War and the Constitution (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1954), p. 101. Copies of three proclamations may be found in Daniels, ed., American Concentration Camps, Vol. 1, Part 2. Printed copies of the three proclamations (No. 2525, December 7, 1941, and Nos. 2526 and 2527 on December 8, 1941) may be found in U.S. Congress, House, Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, National Defense Migration, Fourth Interim Report... Pursuant to H. Res. 113, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., H, Report 2124, May 1942, Appendixes 1-3, pp. 294-300.
7. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, Pp. 116-17.
8. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 55-57; Bill Hosokawa, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (New York, William Morrow & Co., Inc., 1969), pp. 463-64; and Morton Grodzins, Americans Betrayed (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1949), p. 399.
9. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 64-65; Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1981), p. 605; Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, p. 278; and Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 117.
John DeWitt was born on January 9, 1880, at Fort Sidney, Nebraska, His father was an army doctor who had served in the Civil War, and during John's youth his father and family were transferred to Fort Hancock, Texas, Fort Missoula, Montana, and Fort Sully in the Dakotas, When John was 16, he was sent to Princeton. He applied to West Point, but was turned down. On November 1, 1898, he dropped out of college to accept a lieutenancy in the 20th Infantry during the Spanish-American War and he was sent to the Philippines. From then until World War I, he was posted back and forth between stateside and the Philippines. In late 1917, he went to France as a quartermaster, serving behind the lines as a supply officer. Between World Wars I and II, he served on army posts in Washington, Georgia, Texas, and the Philippines.
10. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 117-18.
11. Ibid., p. 118. Archival documents (dating from December 7 to 31, 1941) demonstrating the growing conflicts between the War and Justice departments and showing the rising concern about internal security in both the government and the nation at large may be seen in Daniels, ed., American Concentration Camps, Vol. 1, Part 3.
12. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 4-6, 19-24.
13. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp. 63-64.
14. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 119.
16. For further data on this subject, see U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Wartime Exile, pp. 154-58.
17. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 120.
18. Quoted in Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, p. 48.
19. Quoted in ten Brock, et al., Prejudice, War and the Constitution, p. 75.
20. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 70. Copies of Ford's letters may be found in Daniels, ed., American Concentration Camps, Vol. 2, Part 1.
21. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 121.
22. The Roberts Commission report was published in Pearl Harbor Attack: Hearings Before the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack (39 parts, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), Part 39, pp. 1-21.
23. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 122.
24. For further data on this subject see Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 67-69.
25. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 123.
26. Personal Justice Denied, p. 72; Thomas and Nashimato, Spoilage, p. 7; and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 241-42. Copies of the Department of Justice press releases may be found in Daniels, ed., American Concentration Camps, Vol. 1, Part 2.
Printed copies of the Justice Department press releases between January 29 and February 7 ma be found in House Report 2124, May 1942, Appendixes 6-11, pp. 302-14.
27. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 123-24.
28. Ibid., p. 124, and Grodzins, Japanese Evacuation, p. 124.
30. Ibid., p. 125, and Personal Justice Denied, p. 76-77.
31. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 126.
33. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 77.
34. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 127. The substance of this report, one of the most detailed and sympathetic military analyses of the Japanese problem in early 1942, was published anonymously in Harper's Magazine, October 1942, pp. 489-97.
35. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 127-28, and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 77-78.
36. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 128-29.
39. Ibid., p. 130, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 9.
40. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 7-8.
41. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 131-32.
42. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 132.
43. The memorandum is printed in U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 33-38. According to Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 132, the memorandum should be dated February 13. Also see Personal Justice Denied, pp. 66, 82.
44. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 132-33.
45. Quoted in Roger Daniels, The Decision to Relocate Japanese Americans (Malabar, Florida, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1986). p. 47.
46. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp. 81-82.In Alaska the Army had been made responsible for controlling enemy aliens soon after Pearl Harbor, and it had promptly interned those considered dangerous. On March 6, 1942, the Secretary of war extended his authority under Executive Order 9066 to the Army commander in Alaska, By late May he had evacuated not only his alien internees but also the entire Japanese population of Alaska — 230, of whom more than half were United States citizens.
47. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 134. In its Final Report the War Department stated on page 25: "The War Department representative [Colonel Bendetsen] carried back to the Secretary the recommendation of the Commanding General that some method be developed empowering the Federal Government to provide for the evacuation from sensitive areas of all persons of Japanese ancestry, and any other persons individually or collectively regarded as potentially dangerous. The Commanding Genera; proposal was reduced to writing in a memorandum for the Secretary of War, dated February 14, 1942 . . . . This recommendation was presented to the Secretary of War on or about February 16th." No other evidence was found that the recommendations contained in General DeWitt's memorandum to the Secretary of War were considered or referred to in the preparation of new War Department directives on the subject between February 17 and 20. After these directives were drafted and after talking with General DeWitt on February 20, Bendetsen informed Secretary Stimson: "It was I who misunderstood General Dewitt's plan — he has no mass movement in mind." Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 134, footnote 64.
48. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 134-35.
51. Executive Order 9066, February 19, 1942, Federal Register, Vol. 7, No. 38, February 25, 1942. Also see U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 25-29; Personal Justice Denied, p. 85; Maisie and Richard Conrat, "Executive Order 9066; The Internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans (Los Angeles, California Historical Society, 1972); and ten Brock, Prejudice, War and the Constitution, pp. 111-12. A copy of Executive Order 9066 may be seen in Appendix A of this study, Daniels, Decision to Relocate the Japanese, pp. 49-50.
52. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp. 85-86.
53. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 29-31, 49, and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 331-39.
54. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 136.
55. "Outline Memorandum of February 20, 1942, printed in U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 28-29.
56. Daniels, Decision to Relocate the Japanese, pp. 51-52.
57. Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, pp. 136-37.
59. Quoted in Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 134-36.
60. Conn et al., Guarding the United States, p. 148.
62. Quoted in ten Brock, et al., Prejudice, War and the Constitution, p. 191.
63. Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1947), p. 406.
64. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 89.
65. Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 361-74; ten Brock, Prejudice, War and the Constitution, p. 78; and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 91-92.
66. Personal Justice Denied, p. 18.
Chapter Three
1. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 93-95.
3. Congressional Record, March 9, 1942, p. 2071, and March 10, 1942, p. 2230.
4. U.S. Congress, House, Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, 77th cong., 2d Sess., 1942 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1942), pp. 11010, 11018.
5. Ibid., pp. 11012, 11141, 11153, 11181, 11226.
6. Quoted in Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps USA; Japanese Americans and World War II (Hinsdale, Illinois, The Dryden Press, 1972), p. 78.
7. Ibid, pp. 11068, 11137, 11148, 11153, 11178, 11203, 11207, 11220, 11240, and Leonard Broom and John I. Kitsuse, The Managed Casualty: The Japanese-American Family in World War II (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1956), p. 14.
8. Broom and Kitsuse, Managed Casualty, p. 14. For more information on the Goleta attack see Burl Burlingame, Advance Force Pearl Harbor: The Imperial Navy's Underway Assault on America (Kailua, Hawaii, Pacific Monograph, 1992), pp. 348-51; Bert Webber, Retaliation: Japanese Attacks and Allied Countermeasures on the Pacific Coast in World War II (Corvallis, Oregon State University Press, 1975), pp. 25-32; and Bert Webber, Silent Siege — III: Japanese Attacks On North America in WWII; Ship's Sunk, Air Raids, Bombs Dropped, Civilians Killed (Medford, Oregon, Webb Research Group, 1992).
9. Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, pp. 10974, 11011-12.
10. Ibid. p. 11247, and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 124-25.
11. Ibid., p. 10974, and U.S. war Department, Final Report, pp. 9-10.
12. Personal Justice Denied, p. 98.
14. Congressional Record, March 19, 1942, p. 2726.
16. U.S. War Department Final Report, pp. 29-31,49, and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 331-44. More data on the legal aspects and consequences of the presidential and congressional decisions may be found in Clinton Rossiter, The Supreme Court and the Commander in Chief (Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Press, 1951), pp. 42-54.
17. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 30-31.
18. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 99.
19. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 28-29. Also see Daniels, Decision to Relocate, pp. 116-21.
20. Daniels, Decision to Relocate, p. 53. A copy of Public Proclamation No. 1 is printed in Appendix 15, House Report 2124, pp. 317-20.
21. Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 304-05.
22. A copy of Public Proclamation No. 2 is printed in Appendix 16, House Report 2124, pp. 321-29.
23. Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, p. 85. A copy of Public Proclamation No. 3 is printed in Appendix 17, House Report 2124, pp. 330-31.
24. Personal Justice Denied, p. 101.
25. Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, p. 11061. Also see Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 307-09.
26. Quoted in U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 101.
27. Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, pp. 11020, 11054.
28. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 102.
29. Quoted in Hearings Before the Select Committee investigating National Defense Migration, p. 11276.
30. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 103.
31. Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, p. 85. A copy of Proclamation No. 4 is printed in Appendix 18, House Report 2124, p. 331.
32. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 105.
34.Personal Justice Denied, p. 104, and U.S. Congress, House, Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, National Defense Migration, Report . . . Pursuant to H Res. 113 . . . Preliminary Report and Recommendations on Problems of Evacuation of Citizens and Aliens From Military Areas, 77th Cong., 2d Sess., H. Rept. 1911, March 19, 1942, pp. 15-19.
35. Quoted in Conn et al., Guarding the United States, p. 140.
36. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 50-51, and Peter Irons, Justice at War (New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 69-70.
37. A copy of Executive Order 9102 may be seen in Appendix B of this study.
38. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 26-30, and Irons, Justice At War, pp. 71-72.
39. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 41.
40. Ibid., pp. 43-44, 65-74, 104-05. For an examination of related activities of the WCCA, such as curfew and travel control and repatriation, see ibid., pp. 291-333.
43. Ibid., p. 44, and Irons, Justice At War, p. 69. More indepth study of the Manzanar site selection may be found in Chapter Five of this study.
44. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 44, 46, and 151.
45. Personal Justice Denied, p. 138, and Irons, Justice At War, p. 69, Chapter Four of this study includes data on the construction, development, and operation of the assembly centers.
46. For more information on the historical development of the Japanese community on Terminal Island see Kanshi Stanley Yamashita, "Terminal Island: Ethnography of an Ethnic Community: Its Dissolution and Reorganization to a Non-Spatial Community" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Irvine, 1985).
47. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Wartime Exile, p. 124; Daniels, Decision to Relocate, p. 54; and Daniel S. Davis, Behind Barbed Wire: The Imprisonment of Japanese Americans During World War II (New York, E.P. Dutton, 1982), pp. 43-44.
48. Personal Justice Denied, p. 108, and Alexander Leighton, The Governing of Men (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1946), p. 38.
49. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp. 108-09.
50. Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, p. 11667.
51. Takeo Kaneshiro, comp., Internees: War Relocation Center Memoirs and Diaries (New York, Washington, Atlanta, and Hollywood, Vantage Press, 1976), pp. 2-5.
52. Personal Justice Denied, p. 109.
53. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 48-49; House Report 2124, p. 5; and Audrie Girdner and Ann Loftis, The Great Betrayal: The Evacuation of the Japanese-Americans During World War II (London, The Macmillan Company, Collier-Macmillan, Ltd., 1969), p. 133.
54. Daniels, Decision to Relocate, pp. 54-55, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 49, 519-21.
55. A copy of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 1 is printed in Appendix 20, House Report 2124, pp. 332-34.
56. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp. 109-10.
57. Daniels, Decision to Relocate, pp. 54-55.
58. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 89-93, 114-26, and Thomas and Nashimoto, Spoilage, pp. 13-17.
59. A complete set of the 108 civilian exclusion orders may be found in Record Group 210, Records of the War Relocation Authority, Entry 16, Headquarters Subject — Classified General Files, 1942-46, Box 242, File 35.434, National Archives and Records Administration, Archives I, Washington, D.C. In conjunction with the issuance of each civilian exclusion order the Civil Affairs Division of the Western Defense Command and Fourth Army prepared memoranda detailing the responsibilities of each agency and military unit for implementation of the order, Copies of some of these memoranda may be found in Collection No. 200, California Ephemera Collection, Japanese in California, Box 42, Folders 4-6, Department of Special Collections, University Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
60. House Report 1911, pp. 5-6.
62. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 43, 127-29, 136-38.
63. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 132-33.
65. Dillon S. Myer, Uprooted Americans: The Japanese Americans and the War Relocation Authority During World War II (Tucson, Arizona, University of Arizona Press, 1971), p. 253.
66. Leonard Bloom and Ruth Riemer, Removal and Return (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1949), p. 129.
67. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 117-18. For further information on this topic, see U.S. Department of the Interior, war Relocation Authority, The Wartime Handling of Evacuee Property (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), pp. 1-109; House Report 2124, pp. 13-16, 173-95; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 155-62; U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 127-44; and Final Report of the Participation of the Farm Security Administration In the Evacuation Program of the Wartime Civil Control Administration, Civil Affairs Division, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Covering the Period, March 15, 1942 through May 31, 1942, RG 210, Entry 7, Issuances of Other Federal Government Agencies, 1942-46, Box 5, File, "Wartime Civil Control Administration — Final Report of Farm Security Administration."
68. U.S. War Department. Final Report, pp. 15, 105.
69. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, pp. 12-13, and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 304-05, 312-13. See Appendix B for a list of the exclusion dates, number of persons evacuated, and destinations of Japanese associated with each civilian exclusion order.
70. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 15.
71. Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 303-22.
72. ten Brock, et al., Prejudice, War, and the Constitution, p. 133.
73. Public Proclamation No. 7, quoted in ibid., p. 125.
74. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Store of Human Conservation, pp. ix-x, 23, and Irons, Justice At War, p. 73.
75. Quoted in Conn, et al., Guarding the United States, p. 144.
77. House Report 2124, pp. 25ff, 227ff.
Chapter Four
1. Brian Niiya, ed., Japanese American History: An A-Z Reference from 1868 to the Present (New York, Facts on File, 1993), pp. 110-11, and "Summary of Available Data on Assembly Centers," (July 14, 1943), Community Analysis Reports and Community Analysis Trend Reports of the War Relocation Authority, 1942-1946, p. 5, Roll 3, No. 69, Microfilm Publication MP 342, RG 210.
2. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 151, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 153.
3. For a history of the Santa Anita Assembly Center, see Anthony L. Lehman, Birthright of Barbed Wire (Los Angeles, Westernlore Press, 1970).
4. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 227.
5. Ibid., p. 152. For more information on Army cantonment construction, see U.S. Department of Defense, Legacy Resources Management Program, and U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, World War II and the U.S. Army Mobilization Program: A History of 700 and 800 Series Cantonment Construction, Including Historic American Buildings Survey Documentation for Camp Edwards, Massachusetts, and Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, by Diane Shaw Wasch, Perry Bush, Keith Landreth, and James Glass. 1993.
6. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 183, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 149.
7. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 183-85, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 183-85.
8. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 183-84.
9. Ibid., p. 186, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 152.
10. American National Red Cross, "Report of the American Red Cross Survey of Assembly Centers in California, Oregon, and Washington," August 1942, p. 37, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 139. The per capita cost of constructing the centers ranged from $64 for Puyallup to $196 for Pomona. "Summary of Available Data on Assembly Centers," pp. 5-6ff, Roll 3, No. 69, M1342, RG 210.
11. U.S. War Department Final Report, pp. 46-47, 222, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 169.
12. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 222-23, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 169.
13. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 226.
15. Ibid., p. 225. A copy of the W.C.C.A. Operations Manual, dated June 11, 1942, may be found in collection No. 200, Japanese in California, Box 42, Folder 5, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
16. W.C.C.A. Operation Manual, June 11, 1942, p. 2, Collection No, 200, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
17. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 215-21, 225.
18. Oral testimony, Grace Nakamura, Los Angeles, August 6, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 252, quoted in Personal Justice Denied.
19. Unsolicited testimony, Leonard Abrams, Philadelphia, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 136.
20. Oral testimony, William Kochiyama, New York, November 23, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 97, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 136.
21. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 146-48.
22. American National Red Cross, "Survey of Assembly Centers," pp. 18-19, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 137.
23. Oral testimony, Ken Hayashi, Los Angeles, August 4, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 222, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 138.
24. Oral testimony, Toshiko Toku, Seattle, September 10, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 39, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 139.
25. Oral testimony, James T. Fiyii, Los Angeles, August 6, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 80, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 139.
26. Oral testimony, Thomas M. Tajiri, Chicago, September 22, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 293, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 139.
27. Oral testimony, Marshall M. Sumida, San Francisco, August 11, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 102, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 139.
28. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 148-49; Personal Justice Denied, pp. 139-40; and Mine Okubo, Citizen 13660 (New York, Arno Press, 1978), pp. 50, 97, 99.
29. Personal Justice Denied, p. 140, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 149.
30. Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, p. 89,
31. Personal Justice Denied, p. 140.
32. Monica Sone, Nisei Daughter (Seattle and London, University of Washington Press, 1953), p, 180.
33. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 140-41, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 145.
34. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 186; Personal Justice Denied, p. 141; and Michi Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps (New York, William Morrow & Co., 1976), p. 82.
35. Oral testimony, Misao Sakamoto, Seattle, September 9, 1981, Hearings Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 177, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 141.
36. Personal Justice Denied, p. 141.
37. Oral testimony, Shizuko Tokushige, San Francisco, August 12, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 227, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
38. Oral testimony, James M. Goto, Los Angeles, August 5, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 213, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
39. American National Red Cross, "Survey of Assembly Centers," p. 4, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
40. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 193.
41. Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
42. U.S. war Department, Final Report, p. 186.
43. Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
44. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 186.
45. Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 86, and Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
46. Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 78, and Oral testimony, Kinya Noguchi, San Francisco, August 11, 1081, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 107, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 142.
47. Quoted in Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, p. 89.
49. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 188; Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 84; and Personal Justice Denied, p. 143.
50. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 190, and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 143-44.
51. Sone, Nisei Daughter, p. 178; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, p. 81; and U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 192.
52. American National Red Cross, "Survey of Assembly Centers," p. 52, in Personal Justice Denied, p. 144.
53. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 207-09; Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 92; and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 144-45.
54. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 209-10; Okubo, Citizen 13660, pp. 88, 93; and Personal Justice Denied, p. 145.
55. Unsolicited testimony, Sachi Kajiwara, Dayton, Ohio, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 145.
56. Okubo, Citizen 13660, pp. 103-05.
57. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 211-12, and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 145-46.
58. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 213, and Personal Justice Denied, p. 146.
59. Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 91.
60. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 205-06, and Personal Justice Denied, p. 146.
61. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 224.
62. Ibid., pp. 205-06; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, p. 81; and Personal Justice Denied, p. 146.
63. American National Red Cross, "Survey of Assembly Centers," p. 22, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 147.
64. "Summary of Available Data on Assembly Centers," pp. 11-12, Roll 3, No. 69, M1342, RG 210.
65. Sone, Nisei Daughter, p, 176, and Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 59.
66. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 218; Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 108; and Sone, Nisei Daughter, p. 187.
67. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 226.
68. Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 79, and Personal Justice Denied, p. 148.
69. "Summary of Available Data on Assembly Centers," pp. 27-28, Roll 3, No. 69, M1342, RG 210.
70. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, pp. 22-23; U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 218-19; and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 147-48.
Chapter Five
1. Weglyn, Years of Infamy, p.89, and Personal Justice Denied, p. 149.
2. Edward H. Spicer, Asael T. Hansen, Katherine Luomala, and Marvin K. Opler, Impounded People: Japanese-Americans in the Relocation Centers (Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 1969), p. 62.
3. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, March 18 to June 30, 1942, p. 8; ibid., Second Quarterly Report, July 1 to September 30, 1942, pp. 1-2; and ibid., [Third] Quarterly Report, October 1 to December 31, 1942, pp. 1-2, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 282-84, 288.
6. Delegate authority
4. See Appendix B of this study for a copy of Executive Order 9102.
5. Milton S. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling (Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Co., 1974), pp. 95-96, 125.
6. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 53-54.
7. Letter, Masaoka to Eisenhower, April 6, 1942, quoted in ibid., p. 154.
8. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 3.
9. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling, pp. 116-17, and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 28-30.
10. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 154-55, and Eisenhower, The President Is Calling, pp. 117-19.
11. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 3, and Eisenhower, The President Is Calling, p. 119.
12. Personal Justice Denied, p. 155.
13. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 237-38.
14. "Memorandum of Agreement Between the War Department and War Relocation Authority," April 17, 1942, printed in ibid., pp. 239-40.
15. Ibid., pp. 241-43. Also see U. B. Stanbery to R. L. Nicholson, March 19, 1942, and attachments, "considerations In Selecting Sites To Receive Evacuees" and "Areas Suggested For Investigation," March 17, 1942, RG 83, Records of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Western Regional Office, Berkeley, California, War Relocation Records, 1942, Box 1, File, "Suggested Resettlement Projects," National Archives and Records Administration, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno, California.
16. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling, p. 122, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 249.
17. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 6-7; US. War Department, Final Report, p. 248; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 20; and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 216. Also see Report, Site Selection Board, Reception Centers For Evacuated Japanese, March 26, 1942, RG 83, Western Regional Office, Berkeley, California, War Relocation Records, 1942, Box 1, File, "Suggested Resettlement Projects," National Archives and Records Administration, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno, Also see "Final Report, Operations Division," Irvin Utz, Chief, Operations Division, March 1946, pp. 1-2, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 223, File 24.0528, "Final Report, Operations Division, Author Irvin Utz."
18. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 7; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 20, 22, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 249, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 216.
19. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 249.
20. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 216.
21. Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, p. 96.
22. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 249-50, 263-64; War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 9-10; War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 8-12; and Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p. 28.
23. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 8.
24. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 1.
25. War Relocation Authority, [Third] Quarterly Report, pp. 1-2.
26. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 264.
27. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 12. For further information on "theater of operations" military construction, see U.S. Department of Defense, Legacy Resources Management Program, and U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, World War II and the U.S. Army Mobilization Program.
28. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 264, 584-91.
33. "Final Report, Operations Division," March 1946, p. 19, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 223, File 24,0528.
39. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 13. also see U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 287-88.
40. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 273-74.
43. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 3-4.
44. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 289; Sone Nisei Daughter, p. 190; Okubo, Citizen 13660, p. 128; and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 149, 151.
45. Unsolicited testimony, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 151.
46. Oral testimony, Shizuko S. Tokushige, San Francisco, August 12, 1981, Hearings, Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, p. 228, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 151.
47. Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 89-90.
48. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 5-6.
49. Leighton, Governing of Men, pp. 61-66. Also see Davis, Behind Barbed Wire, pp. 67-72, and Thomas and Mishimoto, Spoilage, pp. 31-33.
50. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 4-5.
51. Personal Justice Denied, p. 157.
52. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 75.
53. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p. 33.
54. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 2.
Chapter Six
1. "Project Directors Report," Final Report, Manzanar Relocation Center, Manzanar, Inyo County, California, February 27, 1942 - March 9, 1946, Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, Vol. I, pp. A-2 to A-6, Record Group 210, Entry 4b, Field Basic Documentation, 1942-46, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Unless otherwise noted, this section will be based on the "Project Director's Report."
2. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A168 — A219, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
3. For more information on Boddy's efforts and Brown's cooperation see Interview of Robert L. Brown by Arthur A. Hansen, December 13, 1973, and February 20, 1974, in Jessie A. Garrett and Ronald C. Larson, eds., Camp and Community: Manzanar and the Owens Valley (Fullerton, California State University, Fullerton, Japanese American Oral History Project, 1977), pp. 23ff, Also see John Walton, Western Times and Water Wars: State, Culture, and Rebellion in California (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1992). Brown detailed his involvement in the selection of the Manzanar site and the public relations program related to its establishment in an untitled report labeled in pencil "Assembly Centers, by Robert Brown, Reports Officer, Manzanar, April, 1943," RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports." Also see "[Assembly Centers," April 1943], Robert Brown, Reports Officer, Manzanar, pp. 1-3, RG 210, Entry 4b, Relocation Center Records, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports."
4. Bob Brown, Inyo-Mono Comes Back," California Magazine of the Pacific, April 1940, pp. 20-22; William Kahrl, Water and Power: The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982), p. 361; and Appendix 2, Letter, Ralph P. Merritt to Aunt Luella, December 25, 1942, in "Project Director's Report, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, A-74 to A-76, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." The best biographical source on Ralph P. Merritt is University of California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, "After Me Cometh A Builder:" The Recollections of Ralph Palmer Merritt, Completed under the auspices of the Regional Cultural History Project and the Oral History Program, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962. Also see Ardis M. Walker, Ralph P. Merritt (San Bernadino, California, Inland Printing and Engraving Company, 1964), p 3-5.
5. For more information on the men contacted by Brown see Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 217. Also see "Owens Valley Coordinating Committee," n.d., Box 21, File, "Public Relations — State, County, etc., Coordinating Committee Collection No, 122, War Relocation Authority Archive, Department of Special Collections, University Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
6. For more information on this topic, see Kahrl, Water and Power, p. 367, and Interview of Robert L. Brown by Arthur A. Hansen, in Garrett and Larson, eds., Camp and Community, p. 27.
7. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A170, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
8. W. B. Higgins, Lt. Col., Corps of Engineers to M. S. Eisenhower, Coordinator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, March 13, 1942, land attachment, "Preliminary Report on Possible Sites for Relocation of Citizens of Japanese Ancestry, and of Japanese Aliens, March 5, 1942), RG 83, War Relocation Records, 1942, Box 1, File — "Suggested Resettlement Projects," National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno.
9. See, for instance, H. A. van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager to Honorable Sheridan Downey, United States Senator, March 5, 1942 (and attachments); Teletype, H. A. Van Norman to S. B. Robinson, March 6, 1942, in Correspondence, March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Historical Records Program, Los Angeles, California, (LADWP Historical Records) and R. R. Proctor, Field Engineer to H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager, Department of Water and Power, March 9, 10, 1942. Also see G. M. Desmond to C. E. Miller, President, Water and Power Commission, January 19, 1942; Glenn M. Desmond, Publicity Director to Orville R. Caldwell, Executive Deputy, Office of the Mayor, City Hall, January 19, 1942; H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager to R. B. Hood Special Agent In Charge, January 12, 1942 (and attachments); R. B. Hood, Special Agent In Charge, Federal Bureau of Investigation to H. A. Van Norman, January 14. 1942 (and attachments); Teletype, S. B. Robinson to H. A. Van Norman, March 4, 1942; and Statement by the Board of Water and Power Commissioners Relative to the Establishment of a Japanese "Reception Center" in Owens Valley, by Clinton E. Miller, President, March 13, 1942 (and attachment); Manzanar Relocation Center, Correspondence, January 1942 — May 1945, Ephemera Collection (Service III), Historical Records Program Library, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.
10. Quoted in Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," in "Project Director's Report, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A169, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
12. Informal Statement of Tom C. Clark, Alien Control Coordinator, in office of H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manger, Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles... March 5, 1942, Correspondence, March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records. Also see "Evacuated Japanese To Be Settled In Owens Valley," Intake, March 1942, p. 3. Copies of the Intake, a periodical of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, may be found in Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.
13. For more information on various reactions by Owens Valley residents, see the interviews in Garrett and Larson, eds., Camp and Community.
14. DeWitt to Department of Water and Power, March 7, 1942, and attachments, File — Jap[anese] Resettlement Area," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop, California, Attached to the letter was Exhibit "A" describing the land parcels that the military wished to lease for the construction of Manzanar, Originally, the military reported that the Manzanar site covered approximately 5,700 acres, On March 11, however, the U.S. Corps of Engineers revised the total acreage to 6,020 after conducting more accurate surveys. Exhibit "A," [March 7, 1942], Correspondence, March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records, Also see "Evacuated Japanese To Be Settled In Owens Valley," Intake, March 1942, p. 3.
15. E. L. Thrasher, Councilman, 14th Dist. to Board of Water and Power Commissioners, March 10, 1942, and Walter C. Peterson, City Clerk to Water and Power Commission, April 155, 1943, Correspondence, March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.
16. Condemnation Proceeding United States of America, Plaintiff, vs. 5,700 Acres of Land, More or Less, in the County of Inyo, State of California; City of Los Angeles, a municipal corporation; Bureau of Power and Light, a political subdivision of the City of Los Angeles; County of Inyo, a body politic and corporate; State of California, a corporation sovereign. No. 147 Civil Complaint in Condemnation, June 27, 1942. RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File 41.080, "individual Projects (Manzanar Relocation Center)." For more information on legal questions relating to acquisition of the Manzanar site, see Norman M. Littell, Assistant Attorney General to Undersecretary of War Robert P. Patterson, April 8, 1942, Correspondence, March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.
17. Memo, E. A. Porter to H. A. Van Norman, July 2, 1942, Correspondence, March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.
18. Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA to Chief of Engineers, Real Estate Division, War Department, March 13, 1945, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080, "Individual Projects (Manzanar Relocation center)."
19. More information on the reactions of Owens Valley residents may be found in the interviews in Garrett and Larson, eds., Camp and Community.
20. In addition to the Brown and Merritt report, see Tom C. Clark, Chief of civilian Staff, Western Defense Command to Ralph P. Merritt, March 7, 1942, and Ralph P. Merritt to Tom C. Clark, Chief of Civilian Staff, Western Defense Command, April 1, 1942, Coll. 122, Box 21, File — "WRA — Public Relations — State, County, Etc., Coordinating Committee," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA. The Owens Valley Coordinating Committee would later name a 12-member advisory board consisting of leading citizens of the area. "Owens Valley Coordinating Committee," n.d., Box 21, File, "Public Relocations — State, County, etc., Coordinating Committee," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
21. Inyo Independent, March 20, 1942. A microfilm copy of this newspaper is on file in the Inyo County Library, Independence, California.
22. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A171-72, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports"
23. Ralph P. Merritt to Tom C. Clark, Chief of Civilian staff, Western Defense Command, April 1, 1942, and attached "Memorandum on Proposed Owens Valley Project," Box 21, File, "WRA — Public Relations — State, County, Etc., Coordinating Committee," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
24. Appendix 25 "The Silverman Report," in "Project Director's Report, " Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. 1, A172, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
25. Colin L. Busby, John M. Findlay, and James C. Bard, A Cultural Resource Overview of the Bureau of Land Management Coleville, Bodie, Benton and Owens Valley Planning Units, California. Prepared for United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Bakersfield District Office, Contract No. YA-512-CT8-181 (Oakland, California, Basin Research Associates, June 1979), p. 3; U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No, 181, Geology and Water Sources of Owens Valley, California, by Willis T. Lee (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1906); and U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 294, An Intensive Study of the Water Resources of a Part of Owens Valley, California, by Charles H. Lee (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1912), pp. 8.10.
26. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 3, and U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 294, pp. 10-14. Also see Clemens Arvid Nelson, Guidebook to the Geology of a Portion of the Eastern Sierra Nevada, Owens Valley, and White Inyo Range: Fall 1980 Field Trip, Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles (Los Angeles, UCLA Department of Earth and Space Sciences, 1980); U. S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Professional Paper 110, A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Inyo Range and the Eastern Slope of the Southern Sierra Nevada, California, by Adolph Knopf and Edwin Kirk (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1918); Genny Schumacher Smith, ed., Deepest Valley: A Guide to Owens Valley, Its Roadsides and Mountain Trails (Rev. ed., Palo Alto, Genny Smith Books, 1978), pp. 119-48; and Robert A Sauder, The Lost Frontier: Water Diversion in the Growth and Destruction of Owens Valley Agriculture (Tucson and London, University of Arizona Press, 1994), pp. 7-27.
27. For more information on the Pauites in Owens Valley see Julian H. Steward, "Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute," University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, XXXIII (September 6, 1933), pp. 233-350; Sven Liljeblad and Catherine S. Fowler, "Owens Valley Paiute," in William c. Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin (Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1986), pp. 412-34; and Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Culture Resource Overview, pp. 108-323.
28. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 14.
29. For more information on early Euro-American exploration of Owens Valley see Gloria Griffen Cline, Exploring the Great Basin (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963).
30. E. M. Cain, The Story of Early Mono County Its Settlers, Gold Rushes, Indians, and Ghost Towns (San Francisco, Fearan Publishers, 1961), pp. 1-2, and Fred M. Phillips, Desert People and Mountain Men; Exploration of the Great Basin, 1824-1865 (Bishop, Chalfant Press, 1977), p. 25.
31. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 124-28, and Phillips, Desert People and Mountain Men, p. 33.
32. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 175-77, and Francis P. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, University of California Press, 1965), p. 34-39.
33. J. C. Ewers, ed., The Adventures of Zenas Leonard: Fur Trader (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1959), pp. 122-25.
34. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 43-44; Phillips, Desert People and Mountain Men, pp. 51-52; and Rolle, California; A History, p. 182.
35. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 43-44; Phillips, Desert People and Mountain Men, pp. 51-52; and Rolle, California: A History, p. 182.
36. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, pp. 39.40, and Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 58-61.
37. Appendix Q, "Journal of Mr. Edward Kern of an Exploration of Mary's or Humboldt River, Carson Lake and Owens River and Lake," in Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859 by Captain J. H. Simpson (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1876), pp. 482, 484.
38. Erwin G. Gudda, California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current Geographical Names (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1969), p. 232, and Philip J. Wilke and Harry W. Lawton, eds., The Expedition of Capt. J. W. Davidson from Fort Tejon to the Owens Valley in 1859 (Socorro, New Mexico, Ballena Press, 1976), p. 36.
39. W. A. Chalfant, The Story of Inyo (Bishop, Chalfant Press, 1922), pp. 57-59.
40. Northern California Historical Records Survey Project, Inventory of the County Archives of California, No. 27, Mono County (Bridgeport). San Francisco, 1940, p. 12, and Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 13.
41. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 41.
42. Wilke and Lawton, eds., Expedition of Capt. J. W. Davidson, pp. 6-7, 14
43. Ibid., pp. pp. 18-20, 23-27, 29-31.
44. Quoted in Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, p. 137.
46. An overview of this period of mining history in California may be found in Chapter One of W. W. Paul, California Gold: The Beginning of Mining in the Far West (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1947). Also see Remi A. Nadeau, Ghost Towns and Mining Camps of California (Los Angeles, Ward Ritchie, 1965), p. 173.
47. Paul, California Gold, pp. 263-66, and Nadeau, Ghost Towns, p. 173.
48. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 45. For more information on this topic, see w. A. Chalfant, Gold Guns, Ghost Towns (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1947).
49. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, pp. 45-46.
50. Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 80-87; Schumacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, p. 177; and Mary DeDecker,Mines of the Eastern Sierra (Glendale, California, La Siesta Press, 1966), pp. 41-45.
51. Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, p. 165, and M. B. Hoover, H. E. Rensch, and W. N. Abeloe, Historic Spots in California (Palo Alto, Stanford University Press, 1966), p. 117.
52. DeDecker, Mines of the Eastern Sierra, pp. 45-46; Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, p. 171; and Dorothy C. Cragen, The Boys in the Sky-Blue Pants: The Men and Events at Camp independence and Forts of Eastern California, Nevada, and Utah, 1862-1877 (Fresno, Pioneer Publishing Company, 1975), p. 48.
53. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 47
54. Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo: 1866-1966 (Independence, California, 1966), pp. 5, 9.
55. Katherine Krater, East of the High Sierra (Independence, California, Draco Foundation, 1975), pp. 7-8, 61; Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, p. 25; Schumacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, pp. 28-29, 41; and Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, p. 193.
56. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 49
57. Schmacher-Smith, Deepest Valley, p. 180; Story of Early Mono County, p. 28, and Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 49.
58. Francis P. Farquhar, ed., Up and Down California, in 1860-1864: The Journal of William H. Brewer (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1930), pp. 538-39; Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 208-10; and Northern California Historical Records Survey Project, Inventory, pp. 23-25.
59. Paul, California Gold, pp. 214-17.
60. Cain, Story of Early Mono County, p. 10, and Northern California Historical Records Survey Project, Inventory, pp. 3-6.
61. Cain, Story of Early Mono County, p. 10; Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 201, 211-12; Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, pp. 35, 37
62. For more information on the impact of Euro-American settlement on the Paiute culture in Owens Valley, see Carling l. Malouf and John M. Findlay, Euro-American Impact Before 1870, in Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin, pp. 499-516; Edward D. Castillo, "The Impact of Euro-American Exploration and Settlement," in William C. Sturtevannt, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8, California (Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1978), pp. 99-127; Sherburne F. Cook, The Conflict Between the California Indian and White Civilization (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1976); Roger D. McGrath, No Goodee Cow Man," in Friends of the Eastern California Museum, comp., Mountains to Desert: Selected Inyo Readings (Independence, California, Friends of the Eastern California Museum, 1988), pp. 17-73; Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, pp. 16-22; and William H. Michael, "'At the Plow and in the Harvest Field': Indian Conflict and Accommodation in the Owens Valley, 1860-1880" (Master's Thesis, University of Oklahoma, 1993).
63. Wilke and Lawton, eds., Expedition of Capt. J. W. Davidson, pp. 19-20.
64. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 45.
65. Wilke and Lawton, eds., Expedition of Capt. J. W. Davidson, pp. 21, 31, and Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, p. 12.
66. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1863), pp. 226-27.
67. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1861 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1861), pp. 110.
68. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862, p. 106; Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 11-13; and Cook, Conflict, pp. 483-85.
69. Quoted in Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 4-5.
70. Phillips, Desert People and Mountain Men, pp. 58-60; Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 96-98; and Farquhar, ed., Up and Down California, p. 538.
71. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862, pp. 225-27, and ibid., Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1863 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1864), p. 99
72. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 6-9. An excellent analysis of military activities in Owens Valley during the 1860s and 1870s may be found in Michael, "At the Plow and in the Harvest Field." For more information on military operations in Owens Valley during the early 1860s, see U.S. War Department, War of the Rebellion, Vol. L. No, I, Chap. LXII. pp, 46-49, 145-53, 210-13, 935-36, 939, 1003, 1024-26, 1036-37, 1047, 1058-59, 1065, 1097-98, 1102-03, 1106-07, 1116,1120-3, 1128, 1140, 1149, 1165, and 1168-70, and Vol. L. No. 2, Chap. LXII, pp.33, 46-47, 75, 93, 111, 135, 139, 450-51, 1022, 1080-87, 1095, 1112—14, 1118-19, 1162, 1166, 1218, 1278, 1292.
73, Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 10-11, 21-23, 28-34.
74. Ibid., pp. 47-54, 74-75, and Mary Austin, The Land of Little Rain (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1950), pp. 59-65.
75. Cragen, Boys in Sky-blue Pants, pp. 55-62; Cook Conflict, pp. 463-465; Walton, Western times and Water Wars, pp. 52-54; and Rolle, California: A History, pp. 403-04.
76. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 88, 187. For more data on Indian population statistics in Owens Valley, see Sherburne F. Cook, The Population of the California Indians: 1769-1970 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976).
77. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 67-72, 78-82; Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 162-65; and Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, p. 136.
78. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, pp. 55-89.
79. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource Overview, p. 59.
80. Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 208-10.
81. Homes for Settlers: Government Lands, Plenty of Water; A Delightful and Healthy Country. The Resources of Inyo County. How to Reach Owens Valley (Independence, California, Inyo Independent Printers, 1886), pp. 5-9, and Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, p. 167.
82. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 150-54, 166-72.
83. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 93-109.
84. Ibid., p. 142, and Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Culture Resource Overview, p. 61.
85. Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 210, 212, 304, 314, and Homes for Settlers, p. 5,
86. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 127, 161-62.
87. W. A. Beck and Y. D. Hasse, Historical Atlas of California (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1974), p. 4; Schumacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, pp. 186-88; Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 115, 122; Charles Mulholland," The Owens Valley Earthquake of 1872," Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern California, III (1894), pp. 27-32; Josiah Dwight Whitney, Owens Valley Earthquake of March 26. 1872 . . . . (N.p., 1872) no pagination; and Mary R. Hill, A Centennial: The Great Owens Valley Earthquake of 1872," California Geology, XXV (March 1972), pp. 51-54.
88. Mulholland, "Owens Valley Earthquake," pp. 31-32.
89. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 171-74, and Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Culture Resource Overview, p. 63.
90. Remi A. Nadeau, City-Makers (Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1948), pp. 31-43, 104-20.
91. Ibid., pp. 35-37, 189-90, and Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, p. 249.
92. Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, p. 248, and Schumacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, p. 26.
93. Nadeau, City-Makers, pp. 31-35, and Nadeau, Ghost Towns and Mining Camps, p. 188.
94. Nadeau, City-Makers, pp. 42-43, 88-97
95. Ibid., and Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 149, 154-57, 166-68, 181, 184.
96. Nadeau, City-Makers, pp. 242-47, and Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 174, 180-89.
97. Nadeau, Ghost Towns and Mining Camps, p. 203-04, 211-15. For more information on the historical development of Bodie, see State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, The Cultural Resources of Bodie State Historic Park, Sacramento, 1977.
98. Among the best sources on the historic development of the Carson and Colorado Railroad are: David F. Myrick, Railroads of Nevada and Eastern California, Volume One — The Northern Roads (Berkeley, Howell-North Books, 19162), pp. 166-210; John F. Due, "Carson and Colorado Railroad," Western Railroader, XXII, (May 1959), pp. 3-5; and J. B. Hungerford, The Slim Princess: The Story of the Southern Pacific Narrow Gauge (Reaeda, California, Hungerford Press, 1956).
99. Hungerford, Slim Princess, pp. 8ff.
100. Krater, East of the High Sierra, pp. 8-9, and Homes for Settlers, pp. 26-27.
101. Hungerford, Slim Princess, p. 8, and Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, p. 59.
102. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 139.
103. Bishop Chamber of Commerce, Owens River Valley, Inyo County, California, The Field of Opportunity, The Land of Promise (Bishop, California, Inyo Register Printing, [ca. 1922], pp. 6-8, and Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, p. 65.
104. Inyo County of Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, p. 77, and Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 213-14.
105. Owens Valley Chamber of Commerce, Inyo County, California. Inyo the Peerless Endowed with a Greater Variety of Natural Resources Than Any Other County (Bishop, California, Inyo Mines Syndicates and Owens Valley Herald, [1908]), no pagination, in Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum, Independence, California, and Schumacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, pp. 191-92.
106. Krater, East of the High Sierra, pp. 31-42.
107. Schumacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, p. 34; "William Penn Colonial Association of California," ca. 1903, in William Penn Colonial Association," in Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; "Articles of Incorporation of William Penn Colonial Association of California," June 9, 1900, in Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum; and Aqueduct Investigation Board, "Report of the Aqueduct Investigation Board to the City Council of Los Angeles," August 31, 1912, 7 vols., Vol. I, pp. 58-59 (copy on file in Eastern California Museum Reference Library).
108. William A. Douglass and Jon Bilbao, Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World, (Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1975), pp. 236, 249-51, 373.
109. Harry W. Lawton, Philip J. Wilke, Mary DeDecker, and William M. Mason, "Agriculture Among the Paiute of Owen Valley," Journal of California Anthropology, III (Summer 1976), pp. 13-50.
110. Wilke and Lawton, eds., Expedition of Capt. J. W. Davidson, pp. 19, 40, 45-47; Lawton et al., "Agriculture Among the Paiute," p. 32; and Austin, The Land of Little Rain, pp. 81-82.
111. Sauder, The Lost Frontier, pp. 125-35.
112. Schmacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley, p. 191; Edwin Schallert, "The Valley of the Flowing Waters," West Coast Magazine, XI (November 1911), pp. 135-49; and G. Yoell Parkhurst, Inyo County, California (San Francisco, Sunset Magazine Homeseekers' Bureau, ca. 1910), no pagination, in Inyo County, California," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum, Also see Agricultural and Industrial Survey of Inyo County, Calif., Made by the California Government Board of San Francisco, California, at the Request of the Board of Supervisors of Inyo County, June-July 1917, Thalia Weed Newcomb, Field agent, September 1917; and J.S. Cotton, Agricultural Conditions of Inyo County, California (Mss., 1905).
113. Material for this section is based on the following works, which are considered by most scholars to be the best documentary sources in this field, Walton, Western Times and Water Wars; Vincent Ostrom, Water & Politics: A Study of Water Policies and Administration in the Development of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, The Haynes Foundation, 1953); Kahrl, Water and Power: The Conflict over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley; William L. Kahrl, "The Politics of California Water: Owens Valley and the Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1900-1927, Part I," California Historical Quarterly, LV (Spring 1976) pp. 2-25; William L. Kahrl, "The Politics of California Water: Owens Valley and the Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1900-1927, Part II," California Historical Quarterly, LV (Summer 1976), pp. 98-120; and Robert A. Sauder, "Owens Valley's Abandoned Landscapes," California Geographer, XXXII (1992), pp. 61-76. Also see Catherine Hoehn, "The Owens Valley-Los Angeles water Controversy: Bibliographic Guide" (M. A. Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1977); Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, A Brief Summary of Important Historical Data and Current Facts Concerning the Municipally Owned, Department of Water and Power, City of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, The Department, 1986); Gordon R. Miller, "Los Angeles and the Owens River Aqueduct" (Ph. D. dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, 1977); Los Angeles, Bureau of the Aqueduct, Annual Reports of the Chief Engineer of the Los Angeles Aqueduct to the Board of Public Works, (7 vols., Los Angeles, Department of Public Works, 1907-13); and Los Angeles, Department of Public Service, Complete Report on Construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct (Los Angeles, 1916).
114. Carey McWilliams, Southern California; An Island on the Land (Santa Barbara and Salt Lake City, Peregrine Smith, Inc., 1979), pp. 183-87, and Ostrom, Water & Politics, p. 9. Also see S. P. Erie, "How the Urban West Was Won: The Local State and Economic Growth in Los Angeles, 1880-1932," Urban Affairs Quarterly, XXVII (No. 4, 1992), pp. 519-54.
115. Schallert, "Valley of the Flowing Waters," p. 143.
116. The perspective of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power may be seen in Los Angeles Water and Power Department, "The Owens Valley Controversy in Perspective," in Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County (Covina, California, Taylor Publishing Company, 1977) pp. 41-43.
117. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, 291.
118. Morrow Mayo, Los Angeles: The Rape of Owens Valley (New York, Alfred Knopf, 1933), pp. 220-46.
119. Owens Valley Chamber of Commerce, Inyo County, [1908], no pagination.
120. Bishop Chamber of Commerce, Owens River Valley, [1922], p. 6.
121. Inyo County, California's Real Primitive Playground, A Paradise for the Homemaker, the Tourist, and the Sportsman, [ca. 1923], in "Inyo County II," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
122. Mayo, Los Angeles, pp. 239-40, and Remi A. Nadeau, The Water-Seekers (New York, Doubleday, 1950), p. 128.
123. Ostrom, Water & Politics, pp. 128-30. For more information on this topic, see Richard Coke Wood, The Owens Valley and the Los Angeles Water Controversy: Owens Valley As I Knew It (Stockton, University of the Pacific, Pacific Center For Western Historical Studies, 1973).
124. Judith and Neil Morgan, "California's Parched Oasis," National Geographic, CXLI (January 1976), p. 103.
125. Krater, East of the High Sierra, pp. 52-53; Kahrl, Politics of California Water, Part II," p. 114; and Ostrom, Water & Politics, p. 127.
126. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 201.
128. The 1929-33 period of Owens Valley history is summarized in W. A. Chalfant, The Story of Inyo (Rev, ed., Los Angeles, Citizens Print Shop, Inc., 1933) pp. 399-411. Also see Mary DeDecker, "Owens Valley, Then and Now," in Friends of the Eastern California Museum, comp., Mountains to Desert, pp. 7-15.
129. "50th Anniversary of Santa Rosa Parish, 1919-1969," p. 5, in "Manzanar WWII Camp," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
130. Brown, "Inyo-Mono Comes Back," p. 20.
131. Kahrl, Water and Power, pp. 361-67, and Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 214. Also see the Interview of Robert L. Brown by Arthur A. Hansen in Garrett and Larson, eds., Camp and Community, pp. 21-22. The Interview of Jack B. Hopkins by Arthur A. Hansen, December 20, 1973, in Garrett and Larson, eds., Camp and Community, pp. 43-45, also provides perspective on this issue.
132. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 216. Also Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, p. 70.
133. Judith and Neil Morgan, "California's Parched Oasis," pp. 98-127. Also see Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Culture Resource Overview, pp. 93-95.
134. San Francisco Examiner, May 15, 1908; "The John Shepherd Family," n.d.; "The John Shepherd Family," told by Eva Lee Gunn and J. E. Shepherd to E. Margrave, n.d.; and numerous unidentified newspaper clippings; in "Shepherd," Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. Also see Guy Chaffee Earl, The Enchanted Valley and Other Sketches (Glendale, California, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1976), pp. 100-04.
135. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 95, and W. A. (Gus) Cashbaugh, "Index, Inyo—Mono County Cattlemen," February 1971, Typescript, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 41, in "Agriculture," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum,
136. For more information on Paiute agricultural practices, see Lawton, et al., "Agriculture Among the Paiute," pp. 13-50.
137. Genny Schumacher, ed.. Deepest Valley: Guide to Owens Valley and Its Mountain Lakes, Roadsides and Trails (San Francisco, Sierra Club, 1962), p. 33.
138. Jane Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp Period: Data and Sources and Suggestions and Sources for Further Research on Attitudes of Owens Valley Townspeople During Manzanar Camp," California State University, Fullerton, October 1993, p. 1.
139. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 95; "Lone Pine Agenda," June 8, 1988, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; and "The Chaffeys in Owens Valley," Newsletter, Friends of the Eastern California Museum, Spring/Summer Quarter, 1993, pp. 6, 10, in "Chaffey (Kreider)," Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
140. Louise Bossert, " The Indians of Manzanar," n.d., in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum, Also see Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp Period," p. 1.
141. Quoted in Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 20, and Interview of Bessie Frazier by C. N. Irvin, n.d., in "Smith, J. P.," Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum,
142. Michael, "'At the Plow and in the Harvest Field,'" p. 132.
143. Inyo Independent, December 19, April 24, 1875, quoted in Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 29.
144. Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp Period," p. 1-2, and Guy Chaffee Earl, Indian Legends and Songs (Glendale, California, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1950), pp. 43-44.
145. Inyo Independent, October 13, 1877.
147. Inyo County Tax Rolls, 1881, in Museum Collection, Eastern California Museum.
148. Inyo Independent, March 14, 1902, in "Hunter," Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. A post office had been established at George Creek in 1875, and from 1896 to 1911 a post office named Thebe (Indian name for the surrounding mountains) served the George Creek and Shepherd Creek settlements. J. Hoyle Mayfield, comp., Postmasters of Inyo County, California, 1866-1970 (Bakersfield, Kern County Genealogical Society, 1970), pp. 8, 20.
149. Charles Mulholland, Inyo County: Its Lands, Water, Soil, Climate, Mines, Scenery, and Other Resources (Los Angeles, Times — Mirror Printing and Binding House, 1893, pp. 19-21. Also see Indexes to the Great Register, Inyo County California, for the years 1886 and 1894, in "Inyo County Index to Great Register," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; "Georges Creek," by Blanche Van Norman, car 1940s, in "Georges Creek," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; and Gussie M. Wood, "The Kispert Ranch on Georges Creek," in Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County, pp. 113-14.
150. Articles of Incorporation of the Sierra Securities Company, October 18, 1906, in "Sierra Securities, Inc., 1906," Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum.
151. Kahrl, Water and Power, pp. 218-20; Inyo Independent, June 18, 1909, in "Inyo County II," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; and "The Manzanar 'Chaffey-Kreider' Connection," pp. 1-4, in "Chaffey (Kreider)," Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. For more data on the background of Chaffey see Joseph A. Alexander, The Life of George Chaffey: A Story of Irrigation Beginnings in California and Australia (Melbourne, Australia, Macmiillan and Co., 1928).
152. E. M. Nordyke, December 2, 1921, Letter of Transmittal and Report of W. F. McClure, State Engineer, Concerning the Owens Valley — Los Angeles Controversy, To Governor Friend Wm. Richardson, Published by the Senate, California Legislature (Sacramento, California State Printing Office, 1925), p. 44, in "LAWP Misc, #4," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
153. Articles of Incorporation of the Owens Valley Improvement Company, May 6, 1910, in "Owens Valley Improvement Company," Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum.
154. Inyo Register, Inyo County, California, Anno Domini 1922: Beautiful Owens Valley (Bishop, California, Inyo Register, 1912), pp. 43-44.
155. Articles of Incorporation of the Manzanar Water Corporation, 1915-1932, in "Manzanar Water Corporation," Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum.
156. Manzanar Commercial Club, Manzanar: Owens River Valley, Inyo County, California [Manzanar, 1917], no pagination; Inyo Independent, January 27, 1911; and Sauder, Lost Frontier, pp. 127-28. In 1911 the Owens Valley Improvement Company published a small color brochure promoting apple growing at Manzanar. Owens Valley Improvement Company, Fortunes in Apples in Owens Valley, Inyo County, California (1911).
157. [Report] To the President and Board of Directors, Owens Valley Improvement Company, May 16, 1912 (incomplete, author unknown), in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical References Files, Eastern California Museum.
158. Anno Domini 1912, pp. 43-44, and John M. Gorman, I Remember Manzanar (Bishop, California, Pinion Press, 1967), pp. 9-10. The Eastern California Museum has a collection containing items relating to Manzanar town history. Among the museum's accessioned objects are documents including deeds for land acquisition by the Lacey family and receipts/assessments of the Manzanar Water Corporation. Provision for pavement of the highway from Independence to Manzanar was made in a state highway bond issue passed in November 1916.
159. Henry S. "Tom" Smith, "My Associations With the Deepest Valley," Eastern California Museum, Tuva, February 1981, pp. 2-3 (copy in Eastern California Museum Reference Library); Henry S. (Tom) Smith, "Manzanar;" Martha L. Mills, "Henry Lenbek Family — Manzanar;" and Nina Taylor, "The Ezra Taylor Family;" Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County, pp. 104-05, 122-24, and 234-35, respectively; Gorman, I Remember Manzanar, p. 9; and Manzanar," p. 2, Agricultural and Industrial Survey of Inyo County, 1917.
160. "Manzanar," Anno Domini 1912, pp. 43-44; Mayfield, comp., Postmasters of Inyo County, p. 13; and "US. Post Offices in Inyo County and Vicinity, Abstracted from U.S.P.O. Records in the National Archives," n.d., in "Post Offices, Inyo County," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum,
161. Sauder, Lost Frontier, p. 128; "Manzanar," pp. 1-2, Agricultural and Industrial Survey of Inyo County, 1917; and Manzanar Commercial Club, Manzanar, no pagination.
162. Articles of Incorporation of the Manzanar Fruit and Canners Association, July 24, 1918, in "Manzanar Fruit and Canners Association, 1918," Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum.
163. Articles of Incorporation of the Manzanar Fruit & Canning Company, April 17, 1919, in "Manzanar Fruit & Canning Company, 1919," Articles of Incorporation, Archives, Eastern California Museum.
164. Anne Margrave, "The Methodist Episcopal Mission Church in Manzanar," in Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County, p. 85; "Lone Pine Agenda," June 8, 1988, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; Della Butterfield Lange, "The Butterfields," Eastern California Museum, Tuva, February 1982, pp. 2-3; and Articles of Incorporation of the Manzanar Methodist Episcopal Church, June 24, 1921, "Manzanar Methodist Episcopal Church, 1921," Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum.
165. Dorothy Lydston Gates, "The Manzanar I Remember," and Mills, "Henry Lenbek Family," Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County, pp. 105,122-24; and Lucille DeBoer, "Manzanar: A True Life Story," The Album: Times and Tales of Inyo — Mono, VI (Summer 1993), pp. 5-8.
166. Deed, Owens Valley Improvement Company to Manzanar School District, Dated July 19, 1912, Inyo County Deed Book 23, Folio 181, copy in #23-040-11 and #23-080-10, Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop; "Manzanar School, Inyo Co., California, 1916," in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; and Mills, "Henry Lenbek Family," Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County, pp. 122-24. Also see Dorothy C. Cragen, A Brief History of the Schools of Inyo County and a Statistical and Financial Report Covering Sixteen Years (Independence, California, 1954).
167. U.S. Bureau of Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1920, Population. Inyo County, Third Township.
168. Henry S. Smith to Mr. [Charles N.] Irwin, August 2, 1979, and Mrs. Barbara Wicks to Charles N. Irwin, July 31, 1979, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. Also see "Maps Showing Classification and City Ownership of Lands in Owens River Valley, Department of Water and Power, City of Los Angeles, Survey Classification and Map Delineation Under Direction of J. E. Phillips, by P. E. Ritch, February 13 1931," Maps, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop. For city land purchase records in the Manzanar area, see "Survey of City Owned Land in Inyo and Mono Counties," n.d., in "Survey of DWP Land;" "Land Purchase Records;" "Ow ens Valley Lands #9;" "Photo Book, South District #4;" and "Photo Book, Sub-Divided Properties #1;" Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
169. "Local Nostalgia," February 12, 19, 1988, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; Marie Louise Parcher and Will C. Parcher, Dry Ditches (Rev. ed., Bishop, California, the Parchers, 1970; Martha Lenbek Mills and Lena Lenbek Sluyter, "Manzanar Reunion and Comments," Eastern California Museum, Tuva, June 1979, p. 4; and Transcribed Interview with Robert V. Phillips by Jane Wehrey, October 1992, in Wehrey, "Report On Manzanar Pre-Camp Period," Appendix. Considerable data regarding Manzanar community reflections may be found in the Family History section of the Vertical Reference Files of the Eastern California Museum under Chaffey (Kreider), Glade, Hancock, William Lyle Hunter, Kispert, Lenbek, Walter Clarence "Stub" Lydston, McGovern, Reynolds, Robson, Shepherd, Skinner, and J. P. Smith, Among the transcribed oral interviews in the Eastern California Museum Oral History Project that contain data on these topics are those of Hazel Reynolds by Richard Potashin, August 17, 24, 1993 (ECM OH 288); Emily Roddy by Richard Potashin, June 16, 1992 (ECM OH 163); and Vic Taylor by Richard Potashin, January 22, March 4, 1991 (ECM OH 082).
170. Quoted in Jane Wehrey, "Layers of Meaning In A Place And Its Past: The Manzanar National Historic Site," May 1994, p. 17. A copy of this study may be found in the collections of the California State University, Fullerton, Oral History Program.
171. Ibid., pp. 19-20. Also see "The Bureau of Water Works and Supply is a Fruit Grower de Luxe," Intake, June 1927, p. 20.
172. For more data on Los Angeles farming operations at Manzanar see J. P. Hertel, County Agent, to E. H. Lehy, A. Water and Power Board Office, Bishop, June 19, 1926, and attachment, "Some Suggestions for the Future Land Policy of the City of Los Angeles in the Owens River Valley. J. P. Hertel, Farm Advisor, June 1926;" in "LAWP Misc. #1," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. Also see Walter E. Packard, Report on the Agricultural Situation in Owens Valley, As It Relates to the Agricultural Development of Lands Belonging to the City of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, Department of Public Service, 1925).
173. "Los Angeles Makes Hay in the Owens valley," Los Angeles Times Farm and Orchard Magazine, June 13, 1926,in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
174. Los Angeles Times Farm and Orchard Magazine, November 20, 1927, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. Also see the reminiscences of John M. Gorman, a life long resident and rancher near Independence, who was hired by Christopher to oversee farm crews at Manzanar during the late 1920s. Gorman, I Remember Manzanar, pp. 15-24.
175. "Owens Valley, Where the Trail of the Wrecker Runs," by Frederick Faulkner, Reprinted from the Sacramento Union, March 28-April 2, 1927, in "LAWP Misc. #1," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
176. "Photo Book, South District #4," and "Photo Book, Sub-Divided Properties #1," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
177. Mayfield, comp., Postmasters of Inyo County, p. 13; "Certificate of Dissolution of Manzanar Water Corporation, December 20,1932, in "Manzanar Water Corporation, 1915-1932," Articles of Incorporation (Archives), Eastern California Museum; and Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp Period," pp. 5-6.
178. "Inyo County's Participation in World War II," p. 3, in "War Service Records, Inyo County," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum, and Memorandum, E. A. Porter to H. A. Van Norman, March 12, 1942, in "Manzanar War Relocation Center," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of water and Power, Bishop.
Chapter Seven
1. For further information on this period see Richard Brewer Rice, "The Manzanar War Relocation Center" (M. A. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1947), Pp. 25-28.
2. Informal statement of Torn C. Clark, Alien Control Coordinator, in office of H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager, Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles. . . March 5, 1942, Correspondence March 1942 — October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.
3. Inyo Independent, March 6, 1942.
4. Adjutant General to Chief of Engineers, March 8, 1942; E. K. Daley, Lt. Col., Corps of Engineers, Assistant: Operations Branch, Construction Division, March 10, 1942; J. R. D. Matheson, Colonel, Corps of Engineers, Executive Assistant to the District Engineer, U.S. Engineer Office, Los Angeles, California, March 13, 1942 (and attachments); and Memorandum for the Surgeon General, March 13, 1942, by E. K. Daley, March 13, 1942; Record Group 77, Records of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Security — Classified Subject Files, 1940-45, Box 657, File No. 652, "Owens Valley, Calif," National Archives and Records Administration, Archives I, Washington, D.C.
5. "Report on Assignment of Projects to Districts," Owens Valley Reception Center, June 1, 1942, RG 77, Security — Classified Subject files, 1940-45, Box 657, File 323.7, "Owens Valley Reception Center, Calif," and "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 995, RG 210, Entry 4b Box 72, File "Manzanar Final Reports."
6. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-9, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
7. Wartime Civil Control Administration, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, San Francisco, California, Press Release, March 18, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports."
8. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A 174-75, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
9. Inyo Independent, March 20, 1942.
10. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-9, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Also see "Jap Exodus to Owens Valley Under Way," Intake, April 1942, pp. 12-13.
11. Wartime Civil Control Administration, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, San Francisco, California, Press Release — Immediate, March 21, 1942, RG 210, Entry 7, Headquarters Records, Basic Documentation and Informational Files, Box 6, File, "Federal Government — Headquarters, Western Defense Command, War Department."
12. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, vol. II, pp. A-175-78, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
13. Manzanar Free Press, March 20, 1943, pp. 2-3.
14. Ibid., April 11, 1942, p. 1.
15. Ibid., April 25, 1942, p. 1.
17. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-9-10, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Also see Report by Robert Brown, Reports Officer, Manzanar, April 1943, pp. 3-4, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports".
18. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol., pp. A-11-12, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
20. Los Angeles Times, March 30, 1942, pp. 1-2.
21. Manzanar Free Press, May 2, 1942, p. 2.
22. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 14, 1944, Report No. 189, "Pre-Evacuation Rumors About Manzanar and Their Effect," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 63.318, No. 10.
23. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 25, 1944, Report No. 233, "Early Days At Manzanar (By An Evacuee)," RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 63.318, No. 13.
24. In late April, the Army responded to Pulliam's requests, sending two officials and two "disinterested appraisers" to Manzanar to purchase the evacuees' automobiles. Appraisals were based on the prices listed in the manufacturers' Blue Book. Before the appraisers arrived several evacuees sold their vehicles to members of the construction crew. The Manzanar Free Press reported on May 2 (p. 5) that the Army planned to "put to immediate use all cars manufactured after 1937." In case the sale of the vehicles was not completed, the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, acting as the fiscal agent of the government, was authorized to store the cars at the owner's risk. The newspaper reported on May 6, (p. 4) that "Ranging from a Model 'T' Ford, vintage 1925, to a 1941 Chevrolet, 150 automobiles belonging to first arrivals at Manzanar have been sold to the Army, carpenters, and workers here." All vehicles would be removed during the week, Four autos were not sold, because the owners decided not to sell.
25. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-178-217, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, Manzanar Final Reports."
26. Art Koura to Mr. Bunkheimer, April 27, 1942, Manuscript Collections, Bainbridge Island Historical Society, Bainbridge Island, Washington.
27. Shiro Nomura, "Inside Manzanar During World War 2," Inyo Museums News Bulletin, Part 1, October 1974, Part 2, November 1974, Part 3, December 1974, Part 4, January 1975, Part 5, February 1975, in "Manzanar WW II Camp," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum.
Chapter Eight
1. No plans, specifications, drawings, or contracts for the initial construction of Manzanar were located during research for this study.
2. "Final Report, Operations Division," E. J. Utz, Chief, Operations Division, March 1946, p. 16, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 223, File No.24.052B, "Final Reports, 'Final Report, Operations.'"
3. "Memorandum of Agreement Between the War Department and War Relocation Authority," April 17,1942, and "Transfer Agreement Between War Department and War Relocation authority Pertaining to Manzanar Relocation Area," June 1,1942, printed in U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 239-40, 46-47.
4. See Chapter Five of this study for more information concerning the adoption of the "Standards and Details."
5. Sec Memorandum, "Additional Construction — Japanese Reception Centers," To the Division Engineer, South Pacific Division, U.S.E.D., June 23, 1942, for required additional construction at Manzanar by the Corps of Engineers to conform with the "Standard and Details" after the WRA took over administration of the camp. RG 210, Entry 38, Subject-Classified General Files of the San Francisco Regional Office, 1942, Box 50, File No. 670, "Engineering and Construction, 1942, General (Thru November)."
6. War Relocation Authority, "Record of Construction of War Relocation Authority Centers," August 1, 1943, Prepared by the Engineering Section of the Washington Staff On the Basis of All Existing Records As Of June 30, 1943, p. 2, RG 210, Entry 2, Headquarters Basic Documentation: General, 1941-46, File, "Washington Office Records, Washington Documents, Engineering Section — Operations Division."
7. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 989-1064, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." In addition to the "Engineering Section," information on construction and buildings at Manzanar may be found in "Appraisal Report, Buildings, Improvements, and Designated Personal Property, Manzanar Relocation Center, Manzanar, California," April 26,1946, and "United States Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Manzanar Relocation Center, Manzanar, California, Fixed Asset Inventory, November 15, 1945." These two documents, hereinafter referred to as "Appraisal Report" and "Fixed Asset Inventory," may be found in RG 210, National Archives and Records Administration, Archives I, Washington, D.C.; Record Group 49, Records of the Bureau of Land Management, San Francisco Regional Office, Division of Land Planning, Records Related to the Disposal of Manzanar and Tule Lake War Relocation Centers, 1945-48, Boxes 918-919, Manzanar-Service Record Cards to Manzanar — Inventories, National Archives and Records Administration, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno, California; and Record Group 270, Records of the War Assets Administration, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, National Archives and Records Administration, Pacific Southwest Region, Laguna Niguel, California.
8. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 995-96, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
9. "project Report No. 64," October 30, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, Files, "Manzanar Project Reports."
10. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 995-96, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and "Project Report No. 3," Jun 15, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
11. "Final Report, Operations Division," E. J. Utz, March 1946, p. 19, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 223, File No. 24.052B; "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 997, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports;" "Transfer of New Construction," Owens Valley Reception Center, November 5, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.503 #1, "November 1942 — December 1944;" and "Manzanar War Relocation Center," Inspected by C. H. Powers, Hervey Brown, Jr., Lt. R. M. Newberry, H. H. Moore, and Thomas C. Rya, November 57, 1942, Record Group 338, Records of U. S. Army Commands, 1942 —, Western Defense Command and 4th Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division. Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 56, File No.323 3/32, "Manzanar (Riot)," National Archives and Records Administration, Archives I, Washington, D.C.
12. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 997-98, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports;" and "Project Report No. 23," July 16,1942, and "Project Report No. 25," July 24, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
13. "Progress Report of the Manzanar Hospital," n.d., Box 15, File, "WRA-Hospital," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
14. Ibid.; and "Project Report No. 12," June 30, 1942, and "Project Report No. 51," September 17, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
15. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 998-99, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
16. "Project Report No. 3," June 15, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
17. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 999, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
18. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1000-01, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
21. John H. Province, Community Services Section, War Relocation Authority to Milton S. Eisenhower, Director, War Relocation Authority, May 8, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41080 #1, "Individual Centers (Manzanar Relocation Center)," May-June 1942.
22. War Relocation Authority, San Francisco Regional Office, "Manzanar From The Inside," p. 10, by Roy Nash, Director, Manzanar War Relocation Project, Manzanar, California, Vertical Files, "Manzanar," Inyo County Library, Independence, California.
23. "Report of Investigation at Manzanar Relocation Area, August 31 to September 2, 1942," P. J. Webster, September 7, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Manzanar, Report of Investigation."
24. Lt. Col. Claude B. Washburne, Chief, Inspection and Fiscal Division, WCCA, "Notes On Manzanar," August 11, 1942, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 12, File No. 323.3, "Manzanar."
25. "Manzanar War Relocation Center," Inspected by Powers, et al., November 5-7,1942, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 56, File No. 323 3/32, "Manzanar (Riot)." Also see "Transfer of New Construction," Owens Valley Reception Center, November 5, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.503 #1, "November 1942 — December 1944."
26. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,003-04, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," For further data on the towers, see "Explanatory Notes," in the aforementioned "Appraisal Report," April 26, 1946.
27. War Relocation Authority, "Manzanar From The Inside," p. 10, by Roy Nash, Vertical Files, "Manzanar," Inyo County Library.
28. "Manzanar War Relocation Center," Inspected by Powers, et al., November 5-7, 1942, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 56, File No. 323 3/32, "Manzanar (Riot)."
29. "Transfer of New Construction," Owens Valley Reception Center, November 5, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.503 #1, "November 1942 — December 1944."
30. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar Vol. III, pp. 1,004, 1,046, RG 21, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
31. "Fixed Asset Inventory," November 15, 1945, Land and Fencing, Account No. 34, p. 2.
32. "Appraisal Report," April 26, 1946, p. 29
33. Ibid., "Explanatory Notes," Fences, (Page 29), Account #34.
34. Ralph Brooks, Director, Works and Maintenance, WCCA to John Heinmiller, Resident Engineer, U.S. Engineers Division, April 23, 1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Subject-Classified General Files, 1942-46, Box 232, File No. 91.025, "United States Engineers Division (U.S.E.D.) General."
35. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 989-91, 1,047, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports;" and "Project Report No. 19," July 8, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
36. "Project Report No. 23," July 16, 1942, and "Project Report No. 63," October 30, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
37. "Project Report No. 23," July 16, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports," and C. G. Gillespie, Chief, Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, California Department of Public Health to Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, November 17, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 226, File No. 63,030, "Sewage Disposal."
38. "Project Report No. 23," July 16, 1942, and "Project Report No. 63," October 30, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
39. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 991-93, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
44. "Conditions at Manzanar Relocation Area," June 1, 1942, by George H. Dean, Senior Information Specialist, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, "May — June 1942." Also see R. N. Cozzens, Assistant Regional Director to Roy Nash, Project Director, July 16, 1942, for a list of engineering and construction problems "needed to bring Manzanar camp up to standard for minimum requirements that the Army should have provided." RG 210, Entry 38, Box 50, File No. 670, "Engineering and Construction 1942, Manzanar."
45. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. V, pp. 1,536-40, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
46. Ralph P. Merritt, Director to Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA, January 10, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 312, File No. 43.500, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers (General)."
47. "Materials for War Relocation Authority Community Facilities," June 16 and August 5, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Boxes 311 and 313, respectively, File No. 43.500, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers (General)."
48. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,005-08, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File "Manzanar Final Reports," and Memorandum, A. M. Sandridge, Sr. Engineer to Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, February 17, 1944, Box 13, Folder, "WRA Engineering," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
49. Manzanar Free Press, January 5, 1944, p. 1.
50. Ibid., February 8, 1944, p. 1; February 12, 1944, p. 1; February 19, 1944, p. 1; and February 23, 1944, p. 1.
51. Ibid., February 23, 1944, p. 1; and "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,008, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Also see Lee C. Poole, Chairman, Community Auditorium Committee to Mrs. Lucy Adams, Assistant Project Director, Community Management Division, March 8, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 220, File No. 18.010.
52. Manzanar Free Press, February 12, 1944, p. 1.
53. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 1,008-11, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72. File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and "Explanatory Notes," in "Appraisal Report," April 26, 1946. Construction details relating to the auditorium building may be found in RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No, 43.503 #1, "November 1942 — December 1944." An "Auditorium Ceiling Plan," dated April 17, 1944, may be found in RG 210, Entry 48, Box 220, File No. 18.010, "Auditorium Ceiling Plan."
54. Manzanar Free Press, June 3, 1944, p. 1; June 10, 1944, p. 1; June 17, 1944, pp. 1-2; June 21, 1944, p. 1; and September 30, 1944, p. 1. Also sec Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Dillon S. Myer, Director, War Relocation Authority, June 13, 1944, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.503 #1, "November 1942 — December 1944."
55. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,011-14, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
61. Roy Nash, Project Director to Harry Brown, Jr., Senior Engineer, June 15, 1942, and Roy Nash, Project Director to S. W. Lowden, District Engineer, California Division of Highways, August 14, 1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical;" and "Quarterly Progress Section, Manzanar Relocation Center, July 1 — September 30, 1942, Box 24, File, "WRA — Reports — Project Reports Office, October 1942," and "Quarterly Report of Manzanar WRA Project, October — December 1942," Box 25, File, "Reports — Project Reports, December 1942," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
62. "Report of Investigation at Manzanar Relocation Area, August 31 to September 2, 1942," P. J. Webster, September 7, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Manzanar, Report of Investigations."
63. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,021, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," Also sec "Project Report," October 1942, p. 101, Box 24, Folder, "WRA-Reports — Project Reports, October 1942," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
64. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,021, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
80. "Community Development Committee," February 3, 1943 RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
81. A. G. Nelson, Chief, Recreation Section to Mr. Temple, Director, June 13, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080, "Individual Projects (Manzanar Relocation Center)."
82. Director, Works Division to Roy Nash, Project Director, June 5,1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 228, File No. 76.010, "General Recreational Problems," and "Project Report No. 21," July 13, 1942.
83. "Community Activities Section. Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 832-34, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
84. Ibid., pp. 831-35, and "Project Report. No. 29," August 3, 1942; "Project Report No. 42," August 25, 1942; "Project Report No. 6l," October 22, 1942; and "Project Report No. 64," October 30. 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
85. "Community Activities Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 836-37, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
86. A. G. Nielson, Supervisor, Community Activities Section to Lucy W. Adams, Assistant Project Director, Community Management February 23, 1943, and A. C. Nielson, Supervisor, Community Activities Section to Block Manager, March 30,1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 228, File No. 65.000, "Recreational Facilities (Community Activities)."
87. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to A. G. Nielson, Supervisor, Community Activities Section, April 12, 1943, and A. G. Nielson, Supervisor, Community Activities Section to Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, April 17, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 228, File No. 67.000, "Recreational Facilities (Community Activities);" and "Community Activities Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 834, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
88. "Explanation Notes," in "Appraisal Report," April 26, 1946. Also see "Fixed Asset Inventory," Other Investments, Account No. 39, Items 23-26, 28.
89. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,030, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
90. Ibid., pp. 1,030-31. Also see "Project Report No. 3, June 15, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports." During the same period, 350 partitions were installed in the women's latrines. "Project Report," October 1942, Box 24, File, "WPA — Reports — Project Reports, October 1942," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
91. "Project Report No. 3, " June 15, 1942; "Project Report No. 13," June 30, 1942; "Project Report No. 15," July 15, 1942; "Project Report No. 23," July 16, 1942; "Project Report No. 26," July 24, 1942; "Project Report No. 29," August 3, 1942; "Project Report No. 51," September 18, 1942; "Project Report No. 57," October 6, 1942; and "Project Report No. 64," October 30, 1942; Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar, Project Reports." Also see Ernest K. Shelbe Major, Corps of Engineers. Contracting Office to Roy Nash, Project Director, July 10, 1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical," and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, July 1 to September 30, 1942, p. 63.
92. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,031, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and "Project Report No. 23," July 16, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar, Project Reports." Also see "Fixed Asset Inventory," November 15, 1945.
93. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1032, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
95. "Materials for WRA Community Facilities," June 16, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 311, File No. 43.500. "Construction and Maintenance of Centers (General)," and "Project Report No. 3," June 15, 1942; "Project Report No. 21," July 13, 1942; and "Project Report No. 45," September 10, 1942," RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
96. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA, January 10, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 312, File No. 43.500, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers (General)," and Robert L. Brown, Acting Project Director to Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA, February 6, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
97. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,033-34, RG 210, entry 46, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
99. Memorandum, Solon T. Kimball, Acting Project Director, Community Services Division to Harvey M. Coverley, Acting Regional Director, November 14, 1942, RG 210, Entry 38, Box 50, File No. 670, "Engineering and Construction 1942, Manzanar," and Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Dillon S. Myer, Director. WRA, June 13, 1944, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.503, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers — Manzanar."
100. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,036, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
102. "Project Report No. 9," June 22, 1942; "Project Report No. 15," July 1, 1942; "Project Report No. 45," September 10, 1942; "Project Report No. 25," July 23, 1942; RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports;" War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, July 1 to September 30, 1942, pp. 63-64; and Robert L. Brown, Assistant Project Director to Arthur M. Sandridge, Senior Engineer, October 20, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
103. "Engineering Section, "Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,036-37, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
104. "Project Report No. 44," September 2, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports;" F. W. Thunberg, Senior Engineer to Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA, May 22, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 312, File No. 43.500, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers (General);" and "Organizational Chart," August 27, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 229, File No. 69.030, "Cooperative Stores (General)."
105. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 1,037, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 62, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
112. "Project Report No. 26," July 24, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
113. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA, January 16, 1943, and Dillon S. Myer, Director, WRA to R. B. Cozzens, Field Assistant director, WRA, February 24, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File 433.503, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers — Manzanar."
114. "Project Report No. 40," August 22, 1942; "Project Report No. 45," September 10, 1942; and "Project Report No. 54," September 24, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports;" War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, July 1 to September 30, 1942, p. 64; and R. B. Cozzens, Assistant Field Director, WRA to Kenneth G. High, War Production Board, March 10, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
115. F. Tayama and Joe Ito, Project Research to Ned Campbell, Assistant Project Director, July 1, 1942, Box 6, File, "WCCA — Production (Agriculture and Industry)," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA, and "Project Report No. 14," July 1, 1942, and "Project Report No. 25," July 24, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
116. "Engineering Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,040-4l, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
123. "Appraisal Report," April 26, 1946, p. 29.
124. "Fixed Asset Inventory," November 15, 1945, Land and Fencing, Account No. 34, pp. 2-3 ff.
125. War Relocation Authority, "Manzanar From The Inside," pp. 1-2, by Roy Nash, Vertical Files, "Manzanar," Inyo County Library.
126. "Project Report No. 64," October 30, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar, Project Reports."
127. Lawrence 1. Hewes, Jr., Regional Director, Farm Security Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture to Roy Nash, Project Director, July 13, 1942, and R. A. Petrie, Assistant to the Regional Director, WRA to Roy Nash, Project Director, July 24, 1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
128. "Project Report No. 3," June 15, 1942; "Project Report No. 14," July 1, 1942; "Project Report No. 17," July 1, 1942; and "Project Report No. 25," July 23, 1942; RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar, Project Reports;" and Carl J. Thye, Senior Engineer, WRA to Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, August 20,1945, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.503, "Construction and Maintenance of Centers — Manzanar."
129. "Project Report No. 32," August 8, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports."
130. "Project Report No. 14," July 1, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Manzanar Project Reports;" Ned Campbell, Assistant Project Director to Elmer M. Rowalt, Acting Regional Director, WRA, September 16, 1942, and Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to H. Brown, H. McConnell, and William Katsuki, March 20, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
131. "Translation from Japanese to English, Memorial Stone," RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
132. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Lucy W. Adams, Assistant Project Director, Community Management, n.d., RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224. File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
133. Robert L. Brown, Assistant Project Director to Arthur M. Sandridge, Senior Engineer, June 24, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 43.500, "Construction of Centers (General), Repairs — Maintenance — Wiring — Landscaping — Electrical."
134. War Relocation Authority, "Manzanar From The Inside," p. 5, by Roy Nash, Vertical Files, "Manzanar," Inyo County Library; and "Community Activities Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 831-32, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File "Manzanar Final Reports."
135. Manzanar Free Press, August 4, 1943, p. 3.
136. Memorandum, Margaret D'llle, Counselor to Lyle C. Wentner, Assistant Project Director, June 26, 1945, and Lyle G. Wentner, Assistant Project Director to John H. Provinse, Chief, Community Management Division, June 27, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 226, File No. 62.120.
137. Manzanar Free Press, July 24, 1943, p. 1.
138. "The Monument of Manzanar," Speech by Ralph P. Merritt, Annual Banquet of Museum Association of Eastern California, Bishop, California, April 23, 1948, Box 48, File, "Statements (Addresses) Re: Japanese, Relocation, etc., by various people, v.d.," Coll. 200, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
139. Manzanar Free Press, August, 1943, p. 1.
140. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to A. M. Sandridge, Senior Engineer — Public Works, January 7, 1946, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 226, File No. 62.120.
Chapter Nine
1. Manzanar Free Press, April 11, 1942, p. 1; U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 363; and Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Assistant Chief of Staff for Civil Affairs, Wartime Civil Control Administration, Statistical Division, "Exclusion Dates, Number Evacuated, and Destinations of Japanese By Civilian Exclusion Order," RG 83, Western Regional Office, Berkeley, California, Records of Adam Poli, 1941-46, Box 2, File, "Procedure — Japanese Evacuee Study."
2. Manzanar Free Press, April 29, 1942, p. 1.
3. Ibid., April 22, 1942, p. 1, and April 26, 1942, p. 1.
4. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 363, and Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, "Exclusion Dates, Number Evacuated, And Destinations of Japanese By Civilian Exclusion Order," RG 83.
5. U.S. War Department Final Report, p. 364, and Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, "Exclusion Dates, Number Evacuated, And Destination of Japanese By Civilian Exclusion Order," RG 83.
6. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 365, and Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, "Exclusion Dates, Number Evacuated, And Destinations of Japanese By Civilian Exclusion Order," RG 83.
7. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 365, and Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, "Exclusion Dates, Number Evacuated, And Destinations of Japanese By Civilian Exclusion Order," RG 83.
8. See, for instance, Manzanar Free Press, July 20, 1942, p. 2, and July 24, 1942, p. 1.
9. Ibid., October 29, 1942, p. 1.
10. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People, pp. 61-66. Also see U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 363-65, and Toshio Yatsushiro, "Political and Socio-Cultural Issues At Poston and Manzanar Relocation Centers — A Themal Analysis," 2 vols., Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1953, Vol 11, p. 343.
11. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People, p. 102. A few of the American-born persons listed in this chart may have been Sansei, or third generation Japanese Americans.
12. Further information on the historical background of the Japanese population on the west coast may be found in U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Wartime Exile, pp. 1-96.
13. Waugh and Yamato, "A History of Japanese Americans In California," in Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California, pp. 162-67, and Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 26, 45-47.
14. House Report 2124, pp. 91-130.
15. Waugh and Yamato, "A History of Japanese Americans In California," in Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California, pp. 168-70. Also see John Modell, The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of Los Angeles, 1900-1942 (Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1977) for material on the Japanese population in Los Angeles.
16. Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California, p. 182, and Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, p. 158.
17. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 33-34. 306
18. Except where otherwise noted the material in this -section on the development of the Los Angeles Japanese/Japanese American community to the 1910s is based on William M. Mason and John A. McKinstry, The Japanese of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, History Division of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Contribution No. 1, 1969), pp. 1-36. Also see Chotoku Toyama, 'The Japanese Community in Los Angeles" (M. A. Thesis, Columbia University, 1926), pp. 6-12, 58-62.
19. Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California, pp. 182-83; Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 158-61; and Kanichi Kawasaki, "The Japanese Community of San Pedro, Terminal Island, California" (M. A. Thesis, University of Southern California, 1931).
20. Fumiko Fukuoka, "Mutual Life and Aid Among the Japanese in Southern California with Special Reference to Los Angeles" (M. A. Thesis, University of Southern California, 1937), pp. 4-7.
21. National Labor Relations Board, "Los Angeles County Vegetable Growers Survey" (Typescript, University of California, Berkeley, [1935], pp. 3-5.
22. Census statistics are listed in House Report 2124, pp. 97, 99-100.
23. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 7-13, and Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 30-32, 45-46, 193.
24. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," p. 47.
25. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 24-25.
26. Ibid., p. 25, 158, and Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 47-48.
27. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 60, 170-74.
29. Isamu Nodera, "A Survey of the Vocational Activities of the Japanese in the City of Los Angeles" (M. A. Thesis, University of Southern California, 1936), pp. 103-06.
30. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 49-50.
31. Nodera, "Survey of Vocational Activities of the Japanese in the City of Los Angeles," p. 82.
32. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," p. 51.
36. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, p. 162,
37. Ibid., p. 117. Also see Nodera, "Survey of Vocational Activities of the Japanese in the City of Los Angeles," p. 96.
38. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 96, 116.
39. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," p. 56.
42. Ibid., pp. 57-60, and Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 13-24, 25-30.
43. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, p. 78.
44. Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, p. 11722.
45. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 35-38.
46. Ibid., pp. 36, 40-41, 43-44, and Rolle, California: A History, p. 587.
47. Hearings Before the Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, p. 11816.
48. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, p. 71.
49. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," p. 42.
50. Kashu-Mainichi Yearbook and Directory for 1939-1940 (Los Angeles, Japan-California Daily News, 1940).
51. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," p. 42, 45.
52. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 30-31.
53. See Broom and Kitsue, Managed Casualty, pp. 1-11, for more information on the social and cultural background of the Japanese/Japanese American population before evacuation.
54. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Impounded People, pp. 24-27. Further information on this topic may be found in Yatsushiro, "Political and Socio-Cultural Issues at Poston and Manzanar Relocation Centers: A Themal Analysis."
55. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 2-3.
56. Arthur A Hansen and David A. Hacker, "The Manzanar Riot: An Ethnic Perspective," Amerasia Journal, II (Fall 1974), p. 124.
57. Ibid; pp. 121-2; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Impounded People, pp. 29-30; and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 3-6.
58. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 6.
59. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," pp. 122-23; Broom and Kitsuse, Managed Casualty, pp. 5-6; and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 6.
60. Hansen and Hacker "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 123, and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Impounded People, p. 31.
61. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p. 370.
62. Data on the history of the JACL may be found in Bill Hosokawa, JACL in Quest of Justice (New York, William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1982); Mike Masaoka and Bill Hosokawa, They Call Me Moses Masaoka (New York, William Morrow and Company, 1987); and Niiya, ed., Japanese American History, pp. 182-85. While these sources are authored by JACL "insiders," they provide a useful overview of the establishment and historical development of the organization.
63. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 5, and Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 125.
64. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Impounded People, p. 30.
65. Niiya, ed., Japanese American History, pp. 184-85.
66. Daniels, Concentration Camps, p. 26.
67. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 124.
69. Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 185-95.
70. Oakland Tribune, March 9, 1942, quoted in Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p. 21.
71. Rita Takahashi Cates, "Comparative Administration and Management of Five War Relocation Authority Camps: America's Incarceration of Persons of Japanese Descent During World War II" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1980, pp. 371-72.
72. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p. 21.
73. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 125.
74. Niiya, Japanese American History, p. 183.
75. Pacific Citizen, June 4, 1942. p. 4, in Library, Japanese American Citizens League National Headquarters, San Francisco, California.
76. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 5.
77. For more information on the background and activities of Elaine Black, see Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York, International Publishers, 1991).
78. Further information on Yoneda's activities, as well as the role of the American Communist Party in labor organization in the prewar Japanese/Japanese American community, may be found in Karl G. Yoneda, Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker (Los Angeles, Resource Development and Publications, Asian American Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1983), and Niiya, ed., Japanese American History, pp. 362-63. Also see the Karl G. Yoneda Papers in the Japanese American Research Project Collection, Collection No. 2010, in the Department of Special Collections at the University Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
79. "Community Analysis: A Statement Prepared by Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 801-802, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
80. Personal communication from Dr. Arthur A. Hansen, Professor of History, California State University, Fullerton, September 3, 1996.
81. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, March 20, 1944, Report No. 222, "The Flower Growers of San Fernando, Their History, Their Evacuation and Their Present Position (By an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, introductory comment, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File No. 63.318 No 12, and Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 30, 1944, Report No. 247, 'The Farmers of the San Fernando Valley: Pre-Evacuation and Evacuation Experiences," by Morris E. Opler, introductory comment, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File No. 63.318, No. 15.
82. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, pp. 158-97.
83. Supporting documentation for this topical analysis may be found in Harold Josif, "Description of Terminal Island Society Taken from a Paper on Japanese Immigrant Communities," pp. 1-12, RG 210, Entry 8, State and Local Government and Private Publications, Box 8, File, "Josif, Harold."
84. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 9, 1944, Report No. 163, "The Terminal Island People, Their Evacuation and Their Experiences At Manzanar (Written by an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 63.318, No. 9.
85. See, for instance, Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 25, 1943, Report No. 73, "Terminal Island During Evacuation," by Morris E Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 4; Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, January 4, 1944, Report No. 122, "At Manzanar and Before (From a Nisei in His Early Twenties)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 7; Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 10, 1944, Report No. 166, "The Terminal Island Evacuation (By a Terminal Island Fisherman)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 9; and Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 18, 1944, Report No. 201, "The Evacuation of Terminal Island (By a Terminal Island Nisei)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 11.
86. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, December 15, 1942 [3], Report No. 107, "The Case of a Terminal Islander (From a Nisei)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 6.
87. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 18, 1943, Report No. 94, "'The Terminal Islanders at Manzanar (From a Nisei)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 5.
88. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 17, 1943, Report No. 93, "Reflections of a Nisei on Zoot Suits," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 5.
89. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 25, 1943, Report No. 75 "A Nisei Mother Looks at Evacuation," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 4.
90. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 1, 1944, Report No. 225, "Up to Now," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File No. 61.318, No. 12.
91. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 24, 1944, Report No.232, "Growing Up in Fresno: An Autobiographical Account (By an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File No. 61.381, No. 13.
92. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 3, 1943, Report No. 80, "Arbitrary Treatment by F.B.I. Men (From an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 4.
93. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 17, 1943, Report No, 93. 344
94. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, January 25, 1944, Report No. 147, '"Zoot Suit' Boys at Manzanar (From an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 8.
95. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 18, 1943, Report No. 95, "What a 'No' Nisei Told Me (From an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210. Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 5.
96. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, August 24, 1944, Report No. 243, "Mr. O., A Farmer From Venice, California (By an Evacuee Research Assistant)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 61.318, No. 15. Further insight into the evacuation experiences, as well as the attitudes, of Venice area residents may be found in Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 16, 1944, Report No. 195, "The Background of 'No' Answers of Former Residents of the Venice, California Area" by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 10.
97. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 30, 1943, Report No. 78, "The Venice Niseis (From a Los Angeles Nisei)," RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 4.
98. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section. November 3, 1943, Report No. 81, "Evacuation Preparations During March 1943 (From an Evacuee)," RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 5.
99. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, December 14, 1943, Report No. 100, "My Story," RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 5.
100. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, March 20, 1944, Report No. 222. 358
101. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 30, 1944, Report No. 247.
102. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 30, 1943, Report No. 79, 'The Florin Evacuation," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 4.
103. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, December 15, 1943, Report No. 108, "The Florin People" by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 6.
104. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 22, 1944, Report No. 231, "Autobiography of a Nisei from the Stockton Area," RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 61.318, No. 13.
105. House Report 2124, pp. 131-33, and Interview of Ikuko Amatatsu Watanabe by Arthur A Hansen, July 24, 1974, California State University, Fullerton, Oral History Program, Japanese American Project, O.H. 1363, pp. 4ff.
106. Interview of Watanabe by Hansen, California State University, Fullerton, Oral History Program, Japanese American Project, O.H. 1363, pp. 1-27.
Chapter Ten
1. "Administrative Management Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,547-49, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
2. "Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area, June 1, 1942, by George H. Dean, Senior Information Specialist, Approved, June 5, 1942, Roy Nash, Project Director, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May — June 1942.
3. Telephone Message to Mr. Fryer From Colonel Cress — Saturday, June 6, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May — June 1942.
4. The motor pool fleet at Manzanar as of June 1 included five sedans, five panels, 20 Army-type 1/2-ton pickups (4x4 feet), 14 Army-type, 1-1/2-ton pickups (4x4 feet), 12 commercial-type 1-1/2-ton stake side trucks, five standard rented pickups, and three rented dump trucks. In July the following vehicles were made available from the Pomona Motor Base — six sedans, four coupes, one panel, three pickups, and two stake trucks. These vehicles had been purchased from evacuees by the Army and distributed to various relocation centers. "Motor Transport and Maintenance Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1122-23, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
5. "Supply Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1291-92, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
6. "Administrative Management Division," Vol. IV, pp. 1,549-50, and "Supply Section" Vol. IV, p. 1,292, Final Report, Manzanar, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
7. "Administrative Management Division," Vol. IV, pp. 1582-84, and "Personnel Management Section," pp. 1,175-79, Final Report, Manzanar, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
8. Project Director's Report," Final Report Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A 17, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
13. Memorandum To: Mr. M. S. Eisenhower, Director, from C. F. Cress, Colonel Cavalry, Deputy Director WRA, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, May-June 1942, File No. 41.080 #1.
14. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A 20-21, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
15. "Administrative Management Division, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, p. 1577, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
16. Inyo Independent, June 26, 1942, quoted in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol I, pp. A 21-23, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
17. Unless otherwise noted, material in this section is based on "Reports Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. 1-23, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
18. Togo Tanaka, an evacuee at Manzanar, would later scoff at suggestions that the Manzanar Free Press enjoyed any real freedom from censorship. Stating that some censorship was overt while some was unseen, he noted that the Issei generally distrusted the paper, while the Nisei viewed it as workers look at a publication produced for them by their employers. John D. Stevens, "From Behind Barbed Wire: Freedom of the Press in World War II Japanese Centers," Journalism Quarterly, XLVII (1971), p. 284.
19. Manzanar Free Press, April 11, 1942, p. 1.
20. Stevens, "From Behind Barbed Wire," pp. 280-81.
21. Manzanar Free Press, April 11, 1942, p. 1.
22. Ibid., April 18, 1942, p. 3.
23. Ibid., May 23, 1942, p. 2.
24. Ibid., June 9, 1942, p. 2; and Memorandum, George Dean to Edwin Bates, June 18, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports."
25. Manzanar Free Press, July 22, 1942, p. 1.
26. Stevens, "From Behind Barbed Wire," p. 283.
27. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 39-40.
28. The reports by Masaoka and Tanaka may be found in RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Project Reports."
29. Memorandum, Edwin Bates to E. R. Fryer, Regional Director, San Francisco, California, November 12, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports."
30. "Mess Operations Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,322-44, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Also see War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 35.
31. "Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area," June 1, 1942, by George H. Dean, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1 May-June 1942.
32. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 36-37.
33. "Fire Protection Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,081, 1,092-98, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
34. "Supply Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,312-14, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area, June 1, 1942, by George H. Dean. RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May-June 1942.
36. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section is based on "Community Government," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 963-88, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
37. Rice, 'The Manzanar War Relocation Center," pp. 39-40.
40. Manzanar Free Press, August 17, 1942, p. 1.
41. Ibid., August 24, 1942, p. 1. 408
42. Ibid., November 19, 1942, p. 1.
43. Ibid., November 28, 1942, p.1.
44. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 15, 1944, Report No. 241, "A History of Internal Government at Manzanar, March 1942 to December 1942," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File No. 63.318, No. 1.
45. Manzanar Free Press, December 5, 1942, p. 1.
46. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 32.
47. Unless otherwise noted, material in this section is based on "Internal Security Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 906-62, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
48. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 36. 412
49. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section is based on "Community Welfare Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 410-65 RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 38-39.
50. The three buildings for the Children's Village were completed in June 1942. On June 23, children were taken by bus to Manzanar from the Maryknoll Home and the Japanese American Children's Home, as well as other orphanages and foster homes, in Los Angeles. Children from the San Francisco Salvation Army Home arrived at Manzanar a week later. The first contingent consisted of 61 children, but 101 children would eventually be housed at the Children's Village at different times. For more information on this topic, see Wilbur Sato, "Manzanar Children's Village," Files, Pacific Great Basin System Support Office, San Francisco, and Dr. T. G. Ishimaru, "Children's Village, Manzanar Relocation Project," January 22, 1943, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Community Management — Welfare — Children's Village, Manzanar, 1943.
51. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 34.
53. "Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area, June 1, 1942," by George H. Dean, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May-June 1942.
54. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 107. 422
55. "Statistics Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,412-17, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
56. Manzanar Free Press, April 22, 1942, p. 2.
57. Ibid., April 25, 1942, p. 2.
58. Ibid., April 22, 1942, p. 2.
60. "Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area, June 1, 1942," by George H. Dean, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May-June 1942.
61. Manzanar Free Press, April 18, 1942, p. 3.
62. Ibid., May 14, 1942, p. 1; War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 16-17; and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 49.
63. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A 15-16, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
64. Manzanar Free Press, June 27, 1942, p. 1, and July 9, 1942, p. 1.
65. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 15-16.
66. "Personnel Management Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,180-83, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 10, 64.
67. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 17-18. 430
68. Manzanar Free Press, September 4, 1942, p. 1, and October 19, 1942, p. 3; and Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 15, 1944, Report No. 241.
69. Manzanar Free Press, October; 15 1942, p. 1, and Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 15, 1944, Report No.241.
70. Manzanar Relocation Center, community Analysis Section, July 15, 1944, Report No. 241.
71. Ibid; p. 56, and "Personnel Management Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,197-98, 1,244-66, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File "Manzanar Final Reports."
72. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 22-23.
73. Unless otherwise noted, material for this subject is based on "Industrial Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,065-67, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
74. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 23.
75. Manzanar Free Press, June II, 1942, p. 2, and War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 23-24.
76. Manzanar Free Press August 12, 1942, p. 1.
77. Ibid., August 17, 1942, p. 1.
78. Ibid., September 11, 1942, p. 1; September 14, 1942, p. 1; and September 17 1942, p. 1.
79. Ibid., September 28, 1942, p. 3, and October 5, 1942, p. 1, and Rice, "Manzanar War Relocation Center," pp. 32-33.
80. Manzanar Free Press, December 7, 1942, p. 1.
81. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section is based on "Industrial Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,070-73, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
82. War Relocation Authority, [Third] Quarterly Report, p. 50.
83. "Industrial Section, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,073-74, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
87. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section is based on "Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises Inc.," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 647-710, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
88. Manzanar Free Press, May 26, 1942, p. 2. 438
89. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 21; War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 65; War Relocation Authority [Third] Quarterly Report, p. 51; "Agriculture Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,102-19, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports;" War Relocation Authority, "Report On Food Production Plans At Manzanar," May 18, 1942, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports;" and "Production Section, Report of Activities, Actual and Proposed of the Manzanar War Works Division," May 26, 1942 RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 225, File No. 51.000, "Report of Activities, Production Section."
90. Manzanar Free Press, March 20, 1943, p. 6, and "Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area, June 1, 1942," by George H. Dean, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May-June 1942.
91. "Education Section," Vol. II, pp. 203-05, 247, and "Community Activities Section," Vol. III, pp. 803-51, Final Report, Manzanar, RG 210, Entry 4b, Boxes 71 and 72, respectively, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 64-65, In his book entitled Exile Within: The Schooling of Japanese Americans, 1942-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1987), Thomas James explores the philosophical underpinnings and pedagogical practices of WRA schools.
92. Manzanar Free Press, October 10, 1942, p. 2.
93. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 30.
94. Unless otherwise noted, material in this section on education is based on "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 202-05, 229-30, 234-37, 242-43, 247-48, 277, 337, and 369, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File "Manzanar Final Reports." For further data on the operation of Manzanar's schools, see Rollin Clay Fox, "The Secondary School Program at the Manzanar War Relocation Center" (Ed. D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1946), and Charles Wollenberg, "Schools Behind Barbed Wire," California Historical Quarterly, LV (Fall 1976), pp. 210-17.
95. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, pp. 28-29, and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, p. 31.
96. Unless otherwise noted, the material for this section is derived from "Health Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 749-60, 768-75, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." For more information on this subject see Michelle Gutierrez, "Medicine In A Crisis Situation: The Effect of Culture on Health Care in the World War II Japanese American Detention Camps," (M. A. thesis, California State University, Fullerton, 1989), pp. 73-153, and Yoshiye Togasaki, "Public Health Report, Manzanar, California, March 21 to September 30,1942," RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Community Management — Health."
97. "Conditions At Manzanar Relocation Area, June 1, 1942, by George H. Dean, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41.080 #1, May-June 1942.
Chapter Eleven
1. Arthur A. Hansen, Betty E. Mitson, and Sue Kunitomi Embrey, "Dissident Harry Ueno Remembers Manzanar," California History, LXIV (Winter 1985), pp. 59-60. Also see Norman R. Jackman, "Collective Protest In Relocation Centers," American Journal of Sociology, LXIII (November 1957), pp. 264-72.
2. Information on the events of December 5-6 is derived from the following primary sources: (1) "Report of Proceedings of the Board of Officers Convened Pursuant to Special Order No. 3, Headquarters Camp Manzanar, December 10, 1942, Record Group 338, Records of U.S. Army Commands, 1942 , Ninth Service Command, Security and Intelligence Division, Box 36, Decimal File, "1939-46," [hereinafter referred to as "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942"]; (2) War Relocation Authority, "The Manzanar 'Incident,' December 5, to December 19, 1942" [by Janet Goldberg], Box 16, File, "Law and Order — Incident — Events Leading Up to and Including Incident — August 1944 — December 21, 1942" [hereinafter referred to as WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'"], Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA; (3) War Relocation Authority, Memorandum To: The Director, by E. R. Fryer, Deputy Director, and Lewis A. Sigler, Assistant Solicitor, "A Report Concerning the Incident at the Manzanar Relocation Center on December 5 and December 6, 1942," December 22, 1943 [1942], RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Manzanar — [hereafter referred to as "WRA Memorandum"] (4) Appendix I, "First Report on Events from Saturday December 5 to date," December 12, 1942, Robert L. Brown, Vol. I, pp. A-65-A-73, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports" [hereinafter referred to as "WRA, Appendix I"]; (5) Manzanar Relocation Center, Documentary Report, No. 90, December 6, 1942, by Togo Tanaka, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Manzanar — Incident Material" [hereinafter referred to as "Manzanar, Documentary Report 90]; and (6) Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice, "Federal Bureau of Investigation Survey of Japanese Relocation Centers," Part II — Interviews with WRA Personnel, RG 210, Entry 17, Headquarters Security — Classified General Files, 1942-46, Washington Office Records, Washington Central Files, Box 1, File, "Federal Bureau of Investigation Correspondence — Gurnea Report" [hereinafter referred to as FBI Survey].
Considerable information on the events of December 5-6 may also be found in a variety of secondary works. The principal secondary sources consulted for this section were: Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 121-33; Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, pp. 107-08; Spicer et al., Impounded People, pp. 135-37; Personal Justice Denied, pp. 178-80; Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 263-66; Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, pp. 49-52; Niiya, ed., Japanese American History, pp. 224-25; Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 63-65; Davis, Behind Barbed Wire, pp. 80-82; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 49-50; and Carey McWilliams, Prejudice; Japanese-Americans, Symbol of Racial Intolerance (Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1944), pp. 176-80.
4. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit D, and Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 10, 1944, Report No. 167, "The December 1942 Incident And Its Background," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 9.
5. "Community Government," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 986, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
6. "WRA Memorandum," p. 3. Also see, WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident'," pp. 1-4.
7. Considerable information on the role of Harry Y. Ueno in the events of December 5-6 may be found in Hansen, Mitson, and Embrey, "Dissident Harry Ueno Remembers Manzanar," pp. 58-64,77, and Sue Kunitomi Embrey, Arthur A. Hansen, and Betty Kuhlberg Mitson, Manzanar Martyr: An Interview with Harry Y. Ueno (Fullerton, California, California State University, Fullerton, The Oral History Program, 1986).
8. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 55, and "WRA, Appendix I," p. A-66. According to the WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. I, Tayama told police that Keiji Arataka had followed him to the showers and back to his apartment that evening. A short while after returning to his quarters, Arataka and the others had attacked him.
9. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 55, and Hansen, Mitson, and Embrey, "Dissident Harry Ueno Remembers Manzanar," p. 60.
10. "Community Government," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 986, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
11. "FBI Survey," p. 202; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 122-23; and WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,"
12. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 114.
13. "WRA, Appendix I," pp. A-66-67; Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 114; Davis, Behind Barbed Wire, pp. 81-82; and Embrey, Hansen, and Mitson, Manzanar Martyr, pp. 116-17, 123-24.
14. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 5.
15. Ibid., pp. 5-7, and "WRA, Appendix I," pp. A-66-67.
16. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 56.
17. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," pp. 114-15.
21. "WRA, Appendix I," p. A-68.
22. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 56.
23. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" pp. 8-10; Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 115; and "Manzanar/Documentary Report 90."
24. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit C.
26. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 10, and "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 57.
27. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 57.
28. "WRA Memorandum," pp. 9-10.
29. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit C.
31. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 66.
33. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 12, and "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit C.
34. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit C, and WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 18.
36. According to one evacuee, agitators in the crowd stayed in the background and threw rocks, while the evacuees in the front were primarily curious bystanders. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 19, 1943, Report No. 97, "One Evacuee's Version of Events Leading Up to the Incident of December 6," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 5.
37. Ibid.; "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," pp. 56-57; and "FBI Survey," p. 203.
38. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," pp. 57, 62-65, and Exhibit C.
39. Ibid., p. 63, and Exhibit C.
40. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit D, and WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 17.
41. "WRA Memorandum," pp. 12-13; "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit D; and WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident," p. 17.
42. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 17.
43. "WRA Memorandum," pp. 13-14.
46. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Story of Human Conservation, p. 51.
47. Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 125-32. For more information on the experiences of the Manzanar evacuee "troublemakers" who were transferred to Moab, Leupp, and Tule Lake, see Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps, pp. 95-116.
48. Hansen, Mitson, and Embrey, "Dissident Harry Ueno Remembers Manzanar," p. 64.
49. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," Exhibit D, and Tad Uyeno, "Point of No Return," Rafu Shimpo, Part II, Sue Kunitomi Embrey Collection, Los Angeles, California.
51. Ralph P. "Pete" Merritt, Jr., Death Valley — Its Impounded Americans: The Contribution by Americans of Japanese Ancestry During World War II (Death Valley, California, The Death Valley '49ers, Inc., 1987), pp. 1-18, and Uyeno, "Point of No Return," Rafu Shimpo, Parts 13-43, Embrey Collection.
52. "FBI Survey," pp. 220-24. Further data on various evacuees' cooperation with the Army and the FBI may be found in J. A. Strickland, Asst. Chief, Interior Security Section to Major Ray Ashworth, May 30, 1942, and Claude B. Washbume, Lt. Colonel, C.A.C., Chief, Inspection & Fiscal Division, "Notes On Manzanar, August 11, 1942, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, WCCA and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Files Nos. 370.093, "Military Police," and 323.3, "Manzanar," respectively.
53. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," pp. 57-58.
54. Ibid., p. 58. Harrie S. Mueller, Colonel, Infantry, Commanding to Commanding General, Ninth Service Command, Fort Douglas, Utah, December 22, 1942, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, WCCA and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 12, File No. 323.3, "Manzanar Riot."
55. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Commanding Officer, Military Headquarters, Camp Manzanar, Manzanar, California, December 22,1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 216, Pile No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General).
56. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. 1, pp. A-39-40, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
57. "WRA Memorandum," pp. 16. 4-94
58. "WRA, Appendix I," p. A-70.
59. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" p. 20.
60. "A Progress Report of the Manzanar Incident," (Extract from Mr. Koichi Masunaka's Diary), p. 6, Appended to WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident.'" Also see Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Commanding Officer, Military Headquarters, Camp Manzanar, Manzanar, California, December 21 1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General).
61. Appendix 2, Ralph P. Merritt to Aunt Luella, December 25,1942 "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-75, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports" [hereinafter referred to as "WRA, Appendix II].
62. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-39, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." On March 15, 1945, Spain ceased to represent Japan as a neutral, and Switzerland quickly agreed to assume this responsibility.
63. "FBI Survey," p. 234; "WRA, Appendix II," "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-75, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports;" and WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" pp. 30-31.
64. "WRA Memorandum," p, 18, 496
66. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" pp. 23-25.
67. Ibid., pp. 25-28, and "WRA Memorandum," pp. 19-20.
68. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident,'" pp. 28-30.
70. "Project Director's Report, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-39, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File "Manzanar Final Reports," and Manzanar Free Press, December 25, 1942.
71. "WRA, Appendix II," pp. A-74-76.
72. WRA, "Manzanar 'Incident," p. 31.
73. Page Smith, Democracy on Trial: The Japanese American Evacuation and Relocation in World War 11 (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, Singapore, Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 247.
74. "WRA Memorandum," pp. 21-23.
75. Manzanar Relocation Center, Documentary Report, No. 91, January 25, 1943, by Togo Tanaka, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Manzanar — Incident Material."
76. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, November 19, 1943, Report No. 97.
77. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, September 13, 1943, Report No. 61, "Statement of A Nisei, A Freshman in College, Who Is Visiting Manzanar During School Vacation," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, 347, File 61.318, No. 3.
78. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, January 24, 1944, Report No. 139, "Evacuation, Events at Manzanar, and Relocation (From a Well-Educated Man of Professional Background)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No. 7.
79. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 22, 1944, Report No. 231.
80. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-26-38, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Also see Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 63-65; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 49-50; and Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 121ff.
81. Statement by Joe Kurihara, Tule Lake, Written, for Miss Hooper Thomas, March 1944, Unnumbered Report, Reel 7, National Archives Microfilm Publications, Microfilm Publications, Microfilm Publication M1342, Community Analysis Reports and Community Analysis Trend Reports of the War Relocation Authority, 1942-1946.
82. Quoted in Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 132-33.
83. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," pp. 61-67. 520
84. Quoted in Weglyn, Years of Infamy, p. 124.
85. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," pp. 116-20.
86. Among the works cited by Hansen and Hacker were Daniels, Concentration Camps USA; Douglas Nelson, "Heart Mountain: The History of an American Concentration Camp" (M.A. Thesis, University of Wyoming, 1970); Gary Y. Okihiro, "Japanese Resistance in America's Concentration Camps: A Re-evaluation," Amerasia Journal, II (Fall 1973), pp. 20-34; James Minoru Sakoda, "Minidoka: An Analysis of Changing Patterns of Social Interaction" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, 1949); Yatsushiro, "Political and Socio-Cultural Issues at Manzanar Relocation Center;" and Matthew Richard Speier, "Japanese-American Relocation Camp Colonization and Resistance to Resettlement: A Study in the Social Psychology of Ethnic Identity Under Stress (Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, 1965). Two works, produced subsequent to Hansen and Hacker's article, which provide additional background to this topic include Hacker, "A Culture Resisted, A Culture Revived," and Gary Y. Okihiro, "Religion and Resistance in America's Concentration Camps," Phylon, XLV (1984), pp. 220-33.
87. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," pp. 120-42.
Chapter Twelve
1. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-52-53, 56, 62-63, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
2. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military Affairs, Japanese War Relocation Centers: Report of the ubcommittee on Japanese War Relocation Centers to the Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate, on S.444. . . .and S. Res, 101 and 111. . . . May 7,1943 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943).
3. War Relocation Authority, Manzanar, California, "Official List, Job Classifications, Definitions, and Ratings," January 6, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 230, File No. 72-000.
4. "Community Management Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. V, pp. 1,519-20, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
5. "Organization Chart, October 1 to December 31, 1944," and "Organization Chart, April 1 to June 30, 1945," RG 210, Entry 48, Box 222, File No. 22.720, "Charts, Organization Chart."
6. Erica Harth, "Children of Manzanar," Massachusetts Review, XXXIV (Autumn 1993), pp. 367-91. Harth was a daughter of a female WRA relocation counselor at Manzanar who had been recruited in Los Angeles. Her family lived at Manzanar (her father worked in Inyokern and spent weekends at the center) from July 1944 until the center closed. On page 372 she noted, "The administrative section where we lived was literally white. Its white painted bungalows stared across at the rows of brown tarpaper barracks that housed the internees. Our house was small but comfortable, with a separate room for me, a kitchen and a bathroom. . . .it seemed a normal enough home, a safe haven against the dust storms and air raid drills. . . ."
7. "Personnel Management Section," Vol. IV, pp. 1,175-80, and Vol. V, pp. 1,547-92, Final Report, Manzanar, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
8. "Reports Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. 39-40, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." A set of the papers may be found in RG 210, Entry 48, Box 221, File No. 22.400C, "The Magpie."
9. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military Affairs, Japanese War Relocation Centers, p. 85.
10. "Personnel Management Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,180-1,207, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Also see Leland Barrows, Executive Officer to Ralph P. Merritt, February 16, 1944, RG 210, Entry 20, Box 30, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center, February 1944," and Ann S. Anderson to Mrs. Lucy W. Adams, Community Management Division, August 26, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 222, File No. 22.720.
11. Sylvia E. Danovitch, "The Past Recaptured?: The Photographic Record of the Internment of Japanese-Americans," Prologue, XII (Summer 1980), pp. 91-103.
12. Karin Becker Ohrn, "What You See Is What You Get: Dorothy Lange and Ansel Adams at Manzanar," Journalism History, IV (Spring 1977), pp. 14-22, 32, and Milton Meltzer, Dorothea Lange: A Photographer's Life (New York, Farrar Straus Giroux, 1978), pp. 238-47.
13. War Relocation Authority, Washington, Administrative Instruction No. 74, January 2, 1943, RG 210, Still Picture Branch, National Archives and Records Administration, Archives II, College Park, Maryland.
14. Ansel Adams, Born Free and Equal: Photographs of the Loyal Japanese-Americans at Manzanar Relocation Center, Inyo County, California (New York, U.S. Camera, 1944), pp. 7, 9, 25, 36. Also see "What You See Is What You Get," pp. 14-22, 32.
15. Graham Howe, Patrick Nagatani, and Scott Rankin, eds.. Two Views of Manzanar: An Exhibition of Photographs by Ansel Adams, Toyo Miyatake (Los Angeles, Regents of the University of California, 1978), pp-9-12. Also see, Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Allen Eaton, Department of Arts and Social Work, Russell Sage Foundation, May 16 and November 26, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 222, File No. 22.600, "Photographs."
16. "Community Government," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 988-88a, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
18. Hacker "A Culture Resisted, A Culture Revived," pp. 146-48.
19. "Community Government," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 988b-88d, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File "Manzanar Final Reports."
20. "Education Section, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II; pp. 226-28, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
21. Ibid., Appendix 9, p. 395.
i23. "Education Section, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, p. 230, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
24. War Relocation Authority, Manzanar, California, "A Summary Report of Curricular Offerings of the Manzanar Schools," prepared by the Unit Heads and their teacher committees, June 28, 1945, pp. 1-3, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Summary Report." Also see. War Relocation Authority, Community Management Division, Education Section, Manzanar, "Annual School Reports," July 1943 — June 1944, and July 1944 — June 1945, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Education Reports," and Wollenberg, "Schools Behind Barbed Wire," pp. 210-17.
25. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 230-32, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
26. Ibid., pp. 233-36, 400. For more information on preschools, see "Report On Nursery Schools At Manzanar," [ca. January 1943], RG 210, Entry 48, Box 227, File No. 64.711, "Report on Nursery School at Manzanar," For further data on evacuee teachers, see "The Contribution of the Evacuee Personnel to Education at the Manzanar Relocation Center," Manzanar, California, August 1945, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Education Reports."
27. "Map of Manzanar Relocation Center," [1943], RG 210, Entry 48, Box 22, File No. 22,700, "Maps, Charts, Sketches."
28. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 236-38, 400, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
29. "Map of Manzanar Relocation Center," [1943], RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 222, File No. 22.700, "Maps, Charts Sketches."
30. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 5, 1943, Report No. 12, "Commencement Exercises of the Manzanar High School, July 3," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. I.
31. Manzanar Free Press, June 21, 1944, p. 1.
32. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 238-42, 374, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and Fox, "Secondary School Program at the Manzanar War Relocation Center." For data on the effect of relocation center living conditions on the study habits of students at Manzanar, see Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 23, 1944, Report No. 204, "Changes in Study Habits and Work Habits as a Result of Evacuation and Center Life," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210. Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No, 11.
33. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 242-47, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports,
34. Ibid., pp. 247-53. Also see War Relocation Authority, Manzanar, California, "Toy Loan Library," [1944], and "The Manzanar Libraries at the Manzanar War Relocation Center," a report prepared by Ruth Budd, Director of School and Community Libraries, Manzanar Education Section, War Relocation Authority, February 1945, File, "Manzanar Camp Reports," Vertical Reference Files, Inyo County Library.
35. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 253-54, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
36. Ibid; pp. 255-60. Also see, "Activity Programs, Manzanar," [Summer 1943}, pp. I-III and 1-11, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Community Activities — Publications."
37. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 261-64, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and "The Spot," File, "The Spot," Vertical Reference Files, Inyo County Library.
38. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 264-65, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
40. Ibid., pp. 266-70. Also see Manzanar Free Press, June 17, 1944, p. 1, and "Education Week," Project Report No. 84, April 10, 1943, by Ray Hayashida, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Education Reports."
41. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 271-75, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 26, 1943, Report No. 32, "Cross-Currents of Life in Manzanar: The Visual Education Museum," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 2.
42. "Education Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 276, 282-86, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
44. Ibid., pp. 287-96, and Manzanar Free Press, August 25, 1945, p. 1.
45. "Industrial Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 1,065-80, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and Memorandum, Arch W. Davis, Office of Reports to Mrs. Lucy W. Adams, Assistant Project Director, October 26, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 231, File No. 80.010.
46. Manzanar Free Press, March 20, 1943, p. 4.
47. "North Field No. 1, Manzanar, 1944; "North Field No. 2, Manzanar, 1944;" "South Field No. 1, Manzanar, 1944;" and "South Field No. 2, Manzanar, 1944;" RG 210, Entry 48, Box 222, File No. 22.700, "Maps, Charts, Sketches."
48. "Agriculture Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, PP. 1,102-20, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports," and "Agricultural Division, Annual Report, Calendar Year 1943, Manzanar, California, January 20, 1944, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Agricultural Reports."
49. Manzanar Free Press, March 20, 1943, p. 6; Albert Lea, "What Ever Happened to Guayule?," Westways (January 1961), pp. 30-32; C. L. Stebbins, Jr., and M. Kodani, "Chromosomal Variation in Guayule and Mariola," Journal of Heredity, June 1944, pp. 163-72; and M. S. Nishimura, R. Emerson, T. Hata, and A. Kageyama, "The Propagation of Guayule from Cuttings," American Journal of Botany, July 1944, pp. 412-18.
40. "Menu," January 6, 1943, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports."
51. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, January 31, 1943, Report No. 1b, "The Mess Hall System at Manzanar (By an Evacuee Mother)," RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 1.
52. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section was drawn from "Mess Operations Section," Final Report,Manzanar, vol. IV, pp. 1,328, 32-34, 46-54, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
53. Engineering Section to Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, December 12, 1944, and Community Activities to Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, January 22, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 220, File No. 18.010.
54. Rollin C. Fox, Chairman to Members of the Auditorium Committee (and attachments), October 20, 1944,and Lyle G. Wentner to Ralph P. Merritt, January 26, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 220, File No. 18.010.
55. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, May 4, 1944, Report No. 238, 'The Newly-Formed Young Peoples' Club of a Manzanar Block (By an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16 Box 348, File 61.318, No. 13.
56. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 5, 1943, Report No. 12, "The Carnival," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 1.
57. Manzanar Free Press, July 1, 1944, p. 1.
58. See, for instance, Allen H. Eaton, Beauty Behind Barbed Wire: The Arts of the Japanese in Our War Relocation Camps (New York, Harpers & Brothers Publishers, 1952), pp. 47, 119, 153, 165.
59. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section was drawn from "Community Activities Section," Final Report, Manzanar, vol. III, pp. 803-905, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
60. "Procedure Used in Carrying on the Work of the Manzanar Hospital Medical Social Service," [1943], RG210, Entry 48, Box 225, File No. 62.000.
61. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section was drawn from "Health Section,' Final Report, Manzanar,Vol. III, pp. 768-800, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
62. Manzanar war Relocation Area, "Operating Agreement between Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises, Inc.and the War Relocation Authority," March 1 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 228, File No. 69.010.
63. Unless otherwise note, material for this section was drawn from "Manzanar cooperative Enterprises Inc.,Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III. pp. 665-748, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
64. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 20, 1943, Report No. 76, "Private Enterprise and Co-Operative Enterprise at Manzanar," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318.
65. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section was drawn from "Internal Security Section," Final Report,Manzanar, Vol. III, pp. 911-62, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
66. Edwin H. Hooper, Chairman of Board of Survey to D. S. Myer, Director, war Relocation Authority, August 18, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 214, File No. 11.134, "Board of Survey, Manzanar.
67. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section was drawn from "Fire Protection Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,081-1,100, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
68. "Community Welfare Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 478-81, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
70. "The Statistics Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, p. 1,412, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports;" Manzanar Free Press, February 20, 1943, p. 1; and Editorial, ibid., February 27, 1943, p. 2.
71. Unless otherwise noted, material for this section was drawn from "Community welfare Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 410-77, 482-86, 619-46, RG 210,, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." For more information on the Children's Village, see Helen Elizabeth Whitney, "Care of Homeless Children of Japanese Ancestry During Evacuation and Relocation" (M. S. W. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948), pp. 58-81.
72. "Evacuee Property Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,355-1,411, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File,"Manzanar Final Reports."
Chapter Thirteen
1. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 215-16. Also see Headquarters, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Office of the Commanding General, Presidio of San Francisco, California, June 11, 1942, W.C.C.A. Operation Manual (2nd Rev., July 15, 1942), Paragraph 3, pp. 1-4, RG 210, Entry 7, Box 5, File, W.C.C.A. Operation Manual."
2. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 215-16.
3. "Memorandum of Agreement Between the War Department and War Relocation Authority," April 17, 1942, in ibid., p. 240.
4. Ibid., pp. 241-42, and War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly Report, p. 4.
5. "Memorandum of Understanding As To Functions of Military Police Units At the Relocation Centers and Areas Administered by the War Relocation Authority," July 8, 1942, in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military Affairs, Japanese War Relocation Centers.
6. Headquarters, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Presidio of San Francisco, California, Circular No. 19, Policies Pertaining to Use of Military Police at War Relocation Centers, September 17, 1942, in U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 527-29.
7. Headquarters, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Office of Commanding General, Presidio of San Francisco, California, Memorandum, Policies as to Relationship of Western Defense Command with Ninth Service Command and War Relocation Authority, November 22, 1942, (and attachments) in U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 526-33.
8. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 54.
10. Appendix 25, "The Silverman Report," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-204-07, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, 'Manzanar Final Reports."
11. Memorandum To: Major Ray Ashworth, J. A. Strickland, Assistant Chief, Interior Security Section, May 30, 1942; Memorandum For: Provost Marshal, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army (Through: Chief of Staff), Karl R. Bendetsen, Colonel, G.S.C., Assistant Chief of Staff, Civil Affairs Division, June 5, 1942; and Memorandum For: Director, War Relocation Authority, by Bendetsen, June 5, 1942; RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control 'Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 67, File No. 370.093, "Military Police."
12. John H. Provinse, Community Services Section, War Relocation Authority to Milton S. Eisenhower, Director, war Relocation Authority, May 8, 1942, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File No. 41080, #1, "Individual Centers (Manzanar Relocation Center)," May—June 1942.
13. Manzanar Free Press, June 6, 1942, p. 4.
14. war Relocation Authority, "Manzanar From the Inside," p. 10, by Roy Nash, Vertical Files, "Manzanar," Inyo County Library
15. Uyeno, "Point of No Return," Rafu Shim po, Parts 12, 22, and 23, Embrey Collection.
16. Manzanar Free Press, July 9, 1942, p. 1.
17. Memorandum For: Assistant Chief of Staff, Civil Affairs Division (Through: Chief of Staff), J. L. DeWitt, Lieutenant General, U.S. Army, Commanding, June 19, 1942, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 12, File No. 323.3, "Manzanar."
18. "Notes on Manzanar, August 11, 1942, Claude B. Washburne, Lt. Colonel, C.A.C., Chief, Inspection & Fiscal Division, WCCA, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 12, File No. 323.3, "Manzanar."
19. War Relocation Authority, Manzanar Relocation Area, Project Director's Bulletin No. 7, July 3, 1942, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 41.079A, "Project Director's Bulletin Nos. 1-79."
20. Manzanar Free Press, July 7, 1942, p. 2.
21. Ibid., July 9, 1942, p. 4.
22. "Report of Investigation at Manzanar Relocation Area, August 31 to September 2, 1942," P. J. Webster (and attached correspondence), RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 68, File, "Report of Investigation."
23. "Internal Security Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. III, p. 945, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 72, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
24. Manzanaar Free Press, June 2, 1943, p. 1, and Donald R. Nail, Captain, C.M.P., Commanding, To Project Director, War Relocation Authority, Manzanar Relocation Center, June 13, 1943, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General)."
25. Robert L. Brown, Acting Project Director to All Division Heads, June 1, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General)."
26. Donald R. Nail, Captain, C.M.P., Commanding to Project Director, War Relocation Authority, Manzanar Relocation Center, June 13, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 216, File 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General)."
27. A. M. Sandridge, Senior Engineer to Robert L. Brown, Assistant Project Director, June 12, 1944, RG 210,Entry 48, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General)."
28. Manzanar Free Press, July 3, 1943, p. 1.
29. Ibid., December 11, 1943, p. 1.
30. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Dillion S. Myer, Director, WRA, December 24, 1943, Box 18, File,"WRA-Military Police," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
31. M. F. Mochau, Lieut. Colonel, A.G.D., Adjutant General to Commanding General, Western Defense Command, Presidio of San Francisco, California, March 28, 1944, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 67, File No. 370.093, "Military Police — Relocation Centers."
32. Western Defense Command, Presidio of San Francisco, California, to Commanding General, Ninth Service Command, Fort Douglas, Utah, April 7, 1944, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 67, File No. 370.093, "Military Police — Relocation Centers."
33. Ninth Service Command, "Revised Mission of Guard Forces at War Relocation Centers," April 17, 1944, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General).
34. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1944, p. 52.
35. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Col. Earl M. Wilson, War Relocation Authority, May 11, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General)."
36. Manzanar Free Press, October 4, 1944, p. 3.
37. Ibid., November 11, 1944, p. 1, and War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1944, p 22.
38. Telegram, Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director, Manzanar to D.S. Myer, Director, War Relocation Authority, November 14, 1944, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 35, File No. 43.503, #1, "November 1942 — December 1944."
39. Teletype, D. S. Myer, Director to Ralph P. Merritt, Manzanar Relocation Center, November 14, 1944, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 315, File No. 43.501, #1, "November 1942 — December 1944.'
40. Charles A. Middleton, Major, AUS, Acting Assistant Adjutant General, Western Defense Command to Commanding General, Ninth Service Command, Fort Douglas, Utah, December 1, 1944, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 67, File No. 370.093, "Military Police — Relocation Centers."
41. W. E. Allen, Captain, A.G.D., Assistant Adjutant General, Ninth Service Command to Commanding Officer, NSC Detachment, Manzanar War Relocation Authority Center, Manzanar, California, December 9, 1944, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 216, File No. 13.311A, "Detail of Military Personnel (General)."
42. Appendix 13, "Public Proclamation No. 21," December 17, 1944, and "Notice For All Residents of the Center," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol I, pp. A-128-39, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71,. File, 'Manzanar Final Reports."
43. Project Director's Bulletins Nos 74 and 75, February 19, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 224, File No. 41.079A,"Project Director's Bulletins, Nos. 1-79."
44. Appendixes 14-21, in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-140—61, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
45. Chief of Staff, United States Army, Washington, D.C., April 10, 1945, RG 338, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Wartime Civil Control Administration and Civil Affairs Division, Central Correspondence, 1942-46, Box 67, File No. 370.093, "Military Police — Relocation Centers."
46. Manzanar Free Press, May 9, 1945, p. 1.
47. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to Central Security District, 9th Service Command, June 13,1945, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 232, File No. 91.014, "Headquarters, Ninth Service Command, Ft. Douglas."
48. Appendix 22, "Notice," July 12, 1945, in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-162-64, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
49. Appendix 23, "Headquarters Western Defense Command, Public Proclamation No. 24, September 4, 1945," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-165-66, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
50. Appendix 24, Teletype, Manzanar, California, November 21, 1945," in "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-167, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
Chapter Fourteen
1. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1943, p. 8. Numerous secondary works provide the historical context for the operation of these programs in the relocation centers. These include: Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 279-91ff; Personal Justice Denied, pp. 185-212; Davis, Behind Barbed Wire, pp. 83-97ff; Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 67-90, 144-56; Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, pp. 104-17ff; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 134-55; and Richard Dinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Myer and American Racism (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1987).
2. Personal Justice Denied, p. 187, and National Japanese American Historical Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry and the United States Constitution, 1787-1987 (San Francisco, 1987), p. 59.
3. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 109, and Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 144-45.
4. Niiya, Japanese American History, p. 218, and Hosokawa, Quest of Justice, pp. 203-04.
5. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Centers, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 109-10.
6. National Japanese American Historical Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry, pp. 59-61, and John Armor and Peter Wright, comps., Manzanar (New York, Times Books, 1988), p. 149.
7. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1943, pp. 8-9.
9. Niiya, Japanese American History, p. 218.
11. Block Managers Assembly Minutes, February 8, 1943, p. 2, Box 10, File, "Community Government — Block Managers' Reports, January — September 1943," Folder 2, Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
12. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p. 57; Broom and Kitsuse, Managed Casualty, p. 225; and Weglyn, Years of Infamy, p. 136.
13. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 199.
14. war Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1943, pp. 9-111
16. Personal Justice Denied, p. 196.
20. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 49-50.
21. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 201-02
22. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 88-89.
23. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1945, p. 40; Oda, Heroic Struggles of Japanese Americans, pp. 163-65; and National Japanese American Historical Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry, pp. 59-66.
24. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior For the Fiscal Year Ended June 30,1944, p. 289,
25. National Japanese American Historical Society, Supplement to U.S. I>Detention Camps Photo Exhibit, 1990 (Sari Francisco, 1989), pp. 28-29; National Japanese American Historical Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry, pp. 63-65; and Eric Bittner, "Loyalty . . . Is A Covenant: Japanese-American Internees and the Selective Service Act," Prologue, XXIII (Fall 1991), pp. 248-52.
26. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1944, pp. 45-46, and War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1945, p. 59.
27. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1945, p. 59.
28. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 110.
29. National Japanese American Historical Society, Supplement, p. 27; war Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July to December 31, 1943, p. 89; Adams, Born Free and Equal, pp. 97-98; Armor and Wright, Manzanar, pp. 147-53; National Japanese American Historical Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry, pp. 59-66; Niiya, Japanese American History, pp. 60-65, 217; and Alan Archbault and Ed Milligan, 100th Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team, 1942-1945," Military Collector & Historian, XLV (Fall 1993), pp. 126-29.
30. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Impounded People; Japanese Americans in the Relocation Centers (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), pp. 188-91.
31. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military Affairs, Japanese War Relocation Centers, pp. 1-309.
32. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military Affairs, Segregation of Loyal and Disloyal Japanese in Relocation Centers: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report on Senate Resolution No. 166 . . . . 78th Cong., 1st Sess., S. Doc. 96, September 14, 1943, pp. 1-25.
33. U.S. Congress, House, Special Committee on Un-American Activities, Report and Minority Views of the Special Committee on Un-American Activities On Japanese War Relocation Centers, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., 1943, H. Rept. 717, pp. 1-16.
34. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human conservation, p. [45], and Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 68-70.
35. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 59-60, and Personal Justice Denied, pp. 206-07.
36. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 207-08, and Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps, pp. 65-82.
37. WRA Conference of Project Directors, Washington, D.C., May 24-29, 1943, pp. 1-15, RG 210, Entry 2; Headquarters Basic Documentation, General, 1941-46.
38. War Relocation Center, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1943, pp. 18-20; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 202-07, 238ff; Stanton B. Turner, "Japanese-American Internment at Tule Lake, 1942 to 1946," Journal of the Shaw Historical Library, II (Fall 1987), pp. 1-34; and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Information Concerning Tule Lake Center, September 1944.
39. WRA Segregation Conference of Project Directors, Denver, Colorado, July 26-27, 1943, p. 1-10, RG 210, Entry 2.
40. War Relocation Authority, Segregation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry in Relocation Centers (Denver, Hirschfield Press, August 1943), pp. 6-7.
41. Personal Justice Denied, p. 208.For information on the renunciants, see Donald E. Collins, Native American Aliens: Disloyalty and the Renunciation of Citizenship by Japanese Americans During World War II (Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 1985)
42. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1944, pp. 66-67, and U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the interior, 1944, pp. 285-86.
43. Personal Justice Denied, p. 208.
44. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 1-4, 56, 87, and U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1944, p. 286.
45. War Relocation Center, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, p. 88.
46. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1944, p. 287.
47. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 211-12.
48. Block Managers Assembly Minutes, January 29, 1943, p. 3, Box 10, File, "Community Government — Block Managers' Reports, January — September 1943," Folder 2, Coil. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
49. Ibid., February 8, 1943, p. l.
51. Manzanar Free Press, February 11, 1943, p. 2.
52. Throckmorton to Merritt, March 24, 1943, Box 23, File, "Relocation — Registration (1942-April 1943)," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections.
53. Telegram, Dillon S. Myer, February 13, 1943, ibid.
54. Throckmorton to Merritt, March 24, 1943, ibid.
55. Hacker, "A Culture Revisited, A Culture Revived," p. 33.
56. Merritt to Myer, March 24, 1943, Box 23, File, "Relocation — Registration (1942-April 1943," Coll. 122,Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
57. Block Managers Assembly Minutes, March 30, 1943, p. 2, Box 10, File, "Community Government — Block Managers' Reports, January — September 1943," Folder 3, Coll. 122, Department of special Collections, UCLA.
58. Merritt, "Summary of Tabulation of Forms 304a,' March 5, 1943, and "Summary of Forms 126, revised," March 23, 1943, Box 23, File, "Relocation — Registration (1942-April 1943)," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
59. Adams to Provinse, February 23, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File No. 61.318.
60. Merritt to Myer, February 17, 1948, box 23, File, "Relocation — Registration (1942-April 1943), Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA. There is evidence that Merritt had reason to single out the Kibei as the source of continuing anti-American sentiment at Manzanar. In November 1943, for instance, a mostly Kibei roofing crew admitted that it had used roofing tar to write Japanese salutations to the Emperor and Japanese military deities and other pro-Japanese patriotic slogans on the roofs of several buildings in Blocks 27, 28, and 29.
61. Adams to Provinse, February 23, 1943, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File No. 61.318.
62. Manzanar, "Summary of Reasons Given by a Representative Group of Project Residents for Answers to Loyalty Question," February 26, 1943, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 230, File No. 72.101.
63. Manzanar, "Summary of Observations by Army Team," RG 210, Entry 48, Box 230, File No. 72.101.
64. Merritt to Myer, February 17, 1943, Box 23, File, "Relocation — Registration (1942 — April 1943), Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
65. Merritt to Myer, March 5, 1943, ibid.
66. Merritt to Myer, February 27, 1943, ibid.
67. Throckmorton to Merritt, March 2, 1943, ibid.
68. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 3, 1943, Report No. 3, "Registration At Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File No. 61.318.
69. Memorandum for Office of the Assistant Secretary of War, by Eugene D. Bogard, 1st Lt, C.M.P., Army Team Captain, Manzanar, California, May 21, 193, attached to ibid.
70. Hacker, "A Culture Revisited, A Culture Revived," p. 49.
71. Manzanar Relocation Center, community Analysis Section, May 18, 1943, Report No. 6, "The Loyalty Controversy — A Statement and A Suggested Program," by Margaret D'Ille, et at., RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File No. 61.318.
72. War Relocation Authority, Meeting of Project Directors, Little Rock, Arkansas, February 11-3, 1943, p. 177, RG210, Entry 2.
73. Ralph P. Merritt, "A Study of Kibei, May 21, 1943, Box 16, File, WRA, Kibei, Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
74. Robert B. Throckmorton, "Comments on Kibei Interviews at Manzanar From April 15, to May 5," July 15, 1943, Box 16, File, Kibei — Hearings," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
75. Hacker, "A Culture Revisited, A Culture Revived," p. 68.
76. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 13, 1943, Report No. 17, "First Reaction to Announcement of Segregation Plans," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318. No. 2.
77. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 15, 1943, Report No. 22, "Comments on Proposed Segregation," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 2.
78. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 20, 1943, Report No. 27F, "Source Material On Segregation And Relocation," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 2.
79. Ralph P. Merritt, "Summary of Segregation Program," p. 1, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 228, File No. 65.430, "Segregation."
80. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-50, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
81. Glick to Saks, August 18, 1943, RG 210, Entry 20, General Outgoing Correspondence to Relocation Centers,1942-46, Box 29, File, "Chronological File, Manzanar, August 1943."
82. Saks to Glick, August 28, 1943, RG 210, Entry 18, 1942-46, File, No. 3.
83. "The Statistics Section," Final Report, Manzanar, vol. IV, pp. 1,450-51, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports.
84. Saks to Glick, October 20, 1943, RG 210, Entry 20, Box 29, File, "Chronological File, Manzanar, October 1943."
85. Memorandum, Lucy W. Adams to Ralph Merritt, December 1, 1943, RG 210, Entry 20, Box 30, File,"Chronological File, Manzanar, December 1943."
86. "Community welfare Section," Final Report, Manzanar, vol. II, pp. 478-80, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
87. "The Statistics Section," Final Report, Manzanar, vol. IV, pp. 1,452-53, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File,"Manzanar Final Reports."
88. Hacker, "A Culture Revisited, A Culture Revived," p. 112.
89. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 16, 1943, Report No. 27A, "Possible Effects of Segregation At Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 2.
90. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, July 31, 1943, Report No. 40, "Two Interviews," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 346, File 61.318, No. 2. The quoted interview is entitled, "Interview with a Kibei, Young, Unmarried, with a Good Command of English."
91. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, September 23, 1943, Report No. 62, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Segregation Group at Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No.3.
92. Memorandum, Morris E. Opler to Lucy Adams, January 22, 1944, Box 26, File, "Segregation — General — Correspondence, Memos," Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
93. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 19, 1943, Report No. 69, "Studies of Segregants At Manzanar: The General Picture," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 4.
94. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, December 14, 1943, Report No. 99, "Studies of Segregants At Manzanar, II. United States Citizens Only with No Foreign Travel," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 5. Other major studies by Opler relating to analysis of segregation at Manzanar include Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, March 17, 1944, Report No. 220, "A Study of Change of Answer Cases At Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 61.318, No. 12.
95. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, December 15, 1943, Report No. 107.
96. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, January 24, 1944, Report No. 139, "Evacuation, Events at Manzanar, and Relocation (From a Well-Educated Man of Professional Background)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 7.
97. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, January 20, 1944, Report No. 137, "Venice Evacuee And Segregant (From an Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 7.
98. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 11, 1944, Report No. 172, "why So Many Of The Venice People Are Tule Lake Bound (From An Evacuee)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 9.
99. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 16, 1944, Report No. 195.
100. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, August 24, 1944, Report No. 243.
101. Hacker, "A Culture Revisited, A Culture Revived," pp. 152-69. For further data on this topic, see the dissertation by Yatsushiro, "Political and Socio-Cultural Issues at Poston and Manzanar."
102. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 92-93, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Camp Savage, Minnesota, was a sub-post of Fort Snelling. The Japanese language school had originated at the Presidio of San Francisco, California, as the IV Army Military Intelligence Service Language School (MISLS) housed in (present) Building No. 640, an old hangar at Crissy Airfield that had previously been converted into a R.O.T.C. classroom. The school opened on November 1, 1941, five weeks before the attack on Pearl Harbor. Removal of Japanese and Japanese Americans from the exclusion zones forced the Army to relocate the school to Fort Snelling, then Camp Savage. This school was the origin of the Defense Language Institute, which was subsequently moved to Monterey, California. Steve Haller, The Last Word in Airfields: A Special History Study of Crissy Field, Presidio of San Francisco, California (San Francisco, National Park Service, 1994), pp. 91-94.
103. Yoneda, Ganbatte, pp. 125-65; Niiya, Japanese American History, pp. 362-63; Raineri, Red Angel, pp. 220-25, 238-39; and James Oda, Heroic Struggles of Japanese Americans, pp. 61-64.
104. Hugh Deane, ed., Remembering Koji Ariyoshi: An American GI in Yenan (Los Angeles, US-China Peoples Friendship Association, 1978), pp. 1-9, 63-67.
105. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 93-94, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports." Evacuees from Manzanar also served in other branches of the armed forces such as the WAACs. Manzanar Free Press, June 17, 1944, p. 1.
106. Manzanar Free Press, April 7, 1943, p. 1.
107. Ibid., July 29, 1944, p. 1. James would be killed in action later in the war.
109. Memorandum To: The Director and Merrill Tozier, Edwin E. Ferguson, August 23, 1944, RG 210, Entry 20, Box 31, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center, August 1944," and Manzanar Free Press, August 5, 1944, p. 1.
110. Manzanar Free Press, August 2, 1944, p. 1.
111. ibid., August 5, 1944, p. 1.
112. Ibid., May 27, 1944, p. 1.
113. Ibid., September 2 and 16, 1944, pp. 1 and 3, respectively. Also see translation, Japanese Section, Manzanar Free Press, September 6, 1944, pp. 3-4.
114. The Manzanar Free Press promoted support for the draft and included numerous articles describing the activities of Japanese Americans in the U.S. armed forces.
115. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 18, 1944, Report No. 201.
116. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 25, 1944, Report No. 234, "Reaction to the Nisei Draft at Manzanar (By Two Evacuees)," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 61.318, No. 13.
117. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 29, 1944, Report No. 215, "Meeting On the Subject of Selective Service Of Nisei Block Representatives, Sunday Feb. 27," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 11.
118. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, March 1, 1944, Report No. 218, "The Effects Of The Nisei Draft At Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 11.
119. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, April 25, 1944, Report No. 234.
120. Manzanar Free Press, March 4, 1944, pp. 1, 3.
121. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, March 1, 1944, Report No. 218.
Chapter Fifteen
1. Executive Order No. 9102, March 18, 1942. For further historical data on the evolution of the WRA's relocation program, see U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, The Relocation Program (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946).
2. Eisenhower, President Is Calling, pp. 96.
3. Daniels, Concentration Camps USA, p. 91, quoting letter from Eisenhower to Wickard, April 1, 1942, and Eisenhower, President Is Calling, p. 125.
4. House Report 1911, pp. 16-18.
5. Eisenhower, President is Calling, p. 117.
6. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 153-54.
7. Mike Masaoka to Eisenhower, April 6, 1942, quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 154.
88. Eisenhower, President Is Calling, p. 116-17.
9. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 27-29.
12. Ibid., pp. 26-27; Eisenhower, President Is Calling, pp. 117-19; and Personal Justice Denied, p. 154-55.
13. Eisenhower, President is Calling, p. 119.
14. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p. 155.
15. Ibid., and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 30.
16. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 30-31.
17. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 17-18.
18. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 47-48. For further information on the student relocation program, see the John William Nason Papers and the Thomas Ray Bodine Papers in the archives of the Hoover Institution On War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Stanford, California. Nason, president of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, served as chairman of the National Japanese American Student Relocation Council and Bodine served as the organization's field director from 1942-45. Material in the Nason Papers, Box 21, and the Bodine Papers, Box 5, Folder 15, relate to Manzanar.
19. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, PP. 31-32.
20. Ibid., pp. 37-41, and War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly Report, pp. 14-17.
21. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 132.
22. Ibid., pp. 32-33, and Myer, Uprooted Americans, p. 135.
23. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, p. 30.
24. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1943, pp. 15-16.
25. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 137.
26. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 943, pp. 30-41.
27. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 135, 137-38.
28. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1943, pp. 1116-17.
29. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 138-39.
30. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1944, pp. 284-85.
31. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 139-40, and War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 45-46.
32. War Relocation Authority, Semi-annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 29-30.
33. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 141-42.
35. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1945, p. 278.
36. Ibid., p. 277, and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 143-45.
37. "Community Analysis weekly Summaries, Nos. 1-30," December 1944 — July 1945, Community Analysis Reports and Community Analysis Trend Reports of the war Relocation Authority, 1942-1946, RG 210, National Archives Microfilm Publications, Microfilm Publication M1342, Roil 2. The surprise of WRA officials is an indication of how little they understood the mind sets of the evacuees.
38. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 145-51; War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31, 1945, pp. 39-40; and "Trends in the Relocation Centers: III," September 26, 1942, pp. 1-7, in "Reports of Trends in the Relocation Centers, Nos 1-3," November 1944 — September 1945, Community Analysis Reports and Community Analysis Trend Reports of the war Relocation Authority, 1942-46, RG 210, National Archives Microfilm Publications, Microfilm Publications M1342, Roll 2.
39. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1946, p. 386, and War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1946, p. 29.
40. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1945, p. 281.
41. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 151-55.
42. Manzanar Free Press, September 7, 1942, p. 1.
43. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, vol. II, pp. 57-59, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, Manzanar Final Reports," and Manzanar Free Press, November 30, 1942. p. 1.
44. Manzanar Free Press, September 17, 1942, p. 1.
45. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 59-62, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
46. Ibid., pp. 62-63, and Manzanar Free Press, November 30, 1942, p. 1.
47. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 63-64, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
48. Manzanar Free Press, November 9, 1942, p. 1.
49. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, p. 63, RG 210, Enfry 4b, Box 71, File, Manzanar Reports." Also see Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, September 13, 1943, Report No. 61, "Statement of a Nisei: A Freshman in College, Who Is Visiting Manzanar During School Vacation," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 3.
50. Manzanar Free Press, December 3, 1942. p. 1.
51. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, p. 66, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
54. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 19, 1944, Report No. 246, "The Relocation Picture At Manzanar During the Summer and Fall Of 1944," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 61.318, No. 15.
55. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, p. 69, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
58. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 19, 1944, Report No. 246.
59. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 74-75, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
61. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 16, 1943, Report No. 68, "The Present Situation In Respect To Relocation At Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File 61.318, No. 4. These themes were further amplied by Opler on June 28, 1944, in Report No. 240, "Resistances To Resettlement," Box 348, File 61.318, No. 15.The despair, fears, and uncertainties experienced by some evacuees, particularly the older Issei, were not only reflected in their apparent lack of interest in relocation but also in other forms of negative behavior. During the winter of 1943-44, for instance, there were reports that gambling and bootleg operations were increasingly becoming a menace to the tranquillity of family life as well as the peace and welfare of the entire center evacuee population.
62. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 83-85, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
68. "Relocation Made Easy," March 28, 1944, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 70, File, "Relocation Reports."
69. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 113-17, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, Manzanar Final Reports."
78. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, June 28, 1944, Report No. 240, and October 31, 1944, Report No. 248, "Family Counseling: The Evacuee Viewpoint," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 348, File 61.318, Nos. 13 and 15, respectively.
79. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, October 19, 1944, Report No. 246, and "Relocation Division," Final Report Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 142-43, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
80. "Relocation Division," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 144-45, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
Chapter Sixteen
1. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Administrative Highlights of the WRA Program(Washington, Government Printing Office), 1946, pp. 72-82.
2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1946, p. 389; Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 224-30; and War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1946, p. 29. Ralph Merritt also donated his Manzanar headquarters office files to UCLA.
3. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, p. A-64, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, Manzanar Final Reports."
4. "Fixed Asset Inventory," RG 49, San Francisco Regional Office, Division of Land Planning, Records Related to the Disposal of Manzanar and Tule Lake War Relocation Centers, 1945-1948, Box 919, File, Manzanar Relocation Center Fixed Asset Inventory," California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca., Fixed Asset Inventory."
5. "Supply Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,318-20, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, Manzanar Final Reports."
7. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Administrative Highlights of the WRA Program, p 77.
8. "Office Services Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,161-62, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, Manzanar Final Reports."
9. "Mess Hall Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, p. 1,347, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, Manzanar Final Reports."
10. "Evacuee Property Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,375-76, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
11. John H. Provinse, Chief, Community Management Division to Ralph P. Merritt, June 6, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 226, File No. 61.120.
12. Lyle C. Wentner, Assistant Project Director to John H. Provinse, June 27, 1945, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 226, File No. 61.120.
13. Ralph P. Merritt, Project Director to A.M. Sandridge, Senior Engineer — Public Works, January 7, 1946, RG 210, Entry 48, Box 226, File No. 61.120. By January 1947 there were only five burials left in the cemetery. Samuel B. Morris, General Manager and Chief Engineer to Laurence E. Goit and Burton S. Grant, January 20, 1947, Correspondence, March 1947 — November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
14. "Personnel Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,208-09, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
15. "Mess Hall Section," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, p. 1,347, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
16. "Personnel Management Section, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,209-11, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
17. "The Statistics Section, Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1,466-68, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
18. "Project Director's Report," Final Report, Manzanar, Vol. I, pp. A-63-64, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final Reports."
19. In June 1945, Merritt obtained permission from WRA Director Myer to dismantle several buildings, including two recreation buildings, Block 35, Building 15, and Block 36, Building 15, to provide wood for crates in which to pack personal belongings of relocating evacuees. "Project Report, Month of June 1945," Box 73, File, "Reports — Project (Reports Office), June 1945, Coll. 122, Department of Special Collections, UCLA.
20. "Appraisal Report," RG 49, San Francisco Regional Office, Division of Land Planning, Records Related to the Disposal of Manzanar and Tule Lake War Relocation Centers, 1945-1948, Boxes 918-919, Files, " [Inventory and Appraisal of Equipment and Furnishings] ," "Manzanar Appraisals/Appraisals III," 82177 Manzanar Relocation Center 2089902-SRP, "BFE."
21. Memorandum, Clyde F. Bradshaw, Superintendent of Maintenance to J. H. Favorite, May 14, 1946, and Hugh G. Fraser, Clerk, Maintenance Department, Manzanar, California to Collector of Internal Revenue, San Francisco, California, May 9, 1946, RG 49, Box 919, File, "Correspondence, Manzanar Maintenance — Gen'l. Land Office."
22. Burton S. Grant, Assistant Chief Engineer of Water Works to Messrs. Samuel B. Morris and Laurence E. Goit, November 23, 1945; Frances H. Lindley, Assistant City Attorney to Northcutt Ely, March 8 and 28, 1946, and attachments; and "In the District Court of the United States in and for the Southern Division of California, Northern Division, United States of America vs. 4700 Acres of Land, more or less, in the County of Inyo, State of California; City of Los Angeles, a municipal corporation; Department of Water and Power of the City of Los Angeles, et al., No. 147-ND, Civil, Notice Not to Remove Fixtures, Additions and Structures, March 27, 1946; Correspondence — Removal of Buildings, November 1945 — April 1946, Manzanar Relocation Center; and "Manzanar Relocation Center, Disposal of Facilities," June 6, 1946, Correspondence, January 1944 — December 1946, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
23. Samuel B. Morris, General Manager and Chief Engineer to Joseph H. Favorite, Regional Field Examiner, June 7, 1946, Correspondence — Removal of Buildings, May-June 1946, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
24. Burton S. Grant, Assistant Chief Engineer of water Works to Samuel B. Morris and Laurence E. Goit, November 23, 1945, and David M. Florell, District Superintendent, Owens Valley Unified Schools to Robert A. Heffner, President, Board of Water and Power Commissioners, Los Angeles, February 19, 1946, Correspondence — Removal of Buildings, November 1945 — April 1946, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
25. Rabin [sic] Merritt to Samuel B. Morris, General Manager and Chief Engineer, Department of Water and Power, Los Angeles, March 26, 1946, ibid.
26. Burton S. Grant, Assistant Chief Engineer of Water Works to Samuel B. Morris and Laurence E. Goit, May 9, 1946, Correspondence — Removal of Buildings, May-June 1946, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
27. "Invitation for Offers and Terms and Conditions of Sale of Buildings and Improvements at Manzanar War Relocation Project, June 14, 1946, ibid.
28. J. A. Krug, Secretary of the Interior to Todd watkins, Managing Editor, Inyo Register, September 11, 1946, RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca. Disposal Data." Also see, Samuel B. Morris, General Manager and Chief Engineer to National Housing Administration, June 12, 1946; Oscar L. Chapman, Acting Secretary of the Interior to Wilson Wyatt, Administrator, National Housing Agency, June 19, 1946; Director, Nonindustrial Division, PN1 to Regional Director, War Assets Administration, July 7, 1947; Fred W. Johnson, Acting Director to W P. Weaver, Assistant Commissioner for Development and Reutilization, National Housing Agency, Federal Public Housing Authority, July 22, 1946; C. W. Kershow, Chief, Surplus Real Property Division to D. M. Kennedy, Property Management Division, War Assets Administration, n.d.; and W. P. Weaver, Assistant Commissioner for Development and Reutilization to Paul C. Williams, Director, Urban and Rural Division, Office of Real Property Disposal, War Assets Administration, August 29, 1946; RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca., Cal. — 47."
29. C. W. Kershow, Chief, Surplus Real Property Division to D. M. Kennedy, Property Management Division, War Assets Administration, n.d., RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca., Cal. — 47."
30. Considerable documentation relating to these contracts may be found in RG 49, Box 918, File, "Appraisals II," and Box 919, File, "Contracts Correspondence."
31. Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County, p. 235.
32. C. w. Kershow, Chief, Surplus Real Property Division to D. M. Kennedy, Property Management Division, War Assets Administration, n.d.; Director, Nonindustrial Division, PN1, Office of Real Property Disposal to Regional Director, War Assets Administration, July 7, 1947; and W. P. Weaver, Assistant Commissioner for Development and Reutilization to Paul C. Williams, Director, Urban and Rural Division, Office of Real Property Disposal, War Assets Administration, August 29, 1946; RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca., Cal. — 47."
33. John J. O'Brien, Deputy Administrator, Office of Real Property Disposal to Chief of Engineers, War Department, August 9, 1946, and Cecil L. deWolfe, Deputy Regional Director for Real Property Disposal to District Engineer, U.S. Engineer Office, August 26, 1946, RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca. Disposal Data."
34. Paul C. Williams, Director, Urban and Rural Division, Office of Real Property Disposal to Cecil deWolfe, Deputy Regional Director for Real Property Disposal, War Assets Administration, September 4, 1946, ibid. Also see, John J. O'Brien, Deputy Administrator, Office of Real Property Disposal to Senator William F. Knowland, October 17, 1946, Rg 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca., Cal. — 47."
35. Burton S. Grant, "Proposed Lease to Inyo County for Manzanar Auditorium," March 28, 1947, Correspondence, March 1947 — November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
36. Los Angers Times, December 2, 1946, in RG 270, California, Recil Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center —-Manzanar, Ca. Disposal Data."
37. Inyo Register, December 6, 1946, ibid.
38. Schurr & Finlay Electric, Hawthorne, California, October 11, 1946 and Samuel B. Morris, General Manager and Chief Engineer to Laurence E. Goit and Burton S. Grant, January 27, 1947, Correspondence, March 1947 — November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
39. John Coolick, Special Assistant to Vice Administrator for Field Operations, January 16, 1947, RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar Ca. Disposal Data;" A. Dewitt Varech, Assistant Attorney General to Robert M. Littlejohn, Administrator, War Assets Administration (and attachment), May 22, 1947, RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation Center — Manzanar, Ca., Plancor 183 — Property Management;" and "In the District Court of the United States in and for the Southern District of California, Northern Division, United States of America vs. 5,700 Acres of Land, more or less, in the County of Inyo, State of California, City of Los Angeles, a municipal corporation, Department of Water and Power of the City of Los Angeles, et al., No 147-ND, Civil, Stipulation for Amendment of Second Amended Final Judgment and Decree in Condemnation and Judgment for Deficiency and Order Thereon, April 2, 1947," Correspondence, March 1947 — November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
40. "In the District Court of the United States ... United States of America vs. 5,700 Acres ...," Correspondence, March 1947 — November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records; Thomas E. Brown, Deputy Administrator, Office of Real Property Disposal to David L. Enselen, Assistant Attorney General, Lands Division, Department of Justice, March 5, 1947, RG 270, California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar Relocation — Manzanar, Ca. Disposal Data;" and Paul M. Lee, Acting Deputy Regional Director, War Assets Administration to Department of Water and Power, March 27, 1947, and Cecil A. Borden, Deputy City Attorney to Clyde Errett, Controller, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, August 15, 1947, File, "Manzanar File (not labeled)," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
41. Elton M. Hattan, Field Examiner, General Land Office to Tom Silvius, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, July 17, 1946, RG 49, Box 919, File, "Contracts Correspondence," Subfile, "Alfalfa Hay 1946."
42. Duane L. Georgeson, Engineer, Los Angeles Aqueduct to Stanley J. Gallon, Chief Land Officer, Owens Valley Unified School Distinct (and attachments), March 14, 1978, File, "#23-040-11, #23-080-10," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of water and Power, Bishop.
43. Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp Period," n,p., and ibid., "Layers of Meaning in a Place and its Past," p. 25.
44. Board of Water and Power Commissioners of the City of Los Angeles, "Notice of Sale Inviting Bids for Surplus Building at Manzanar, Inyo County," (and attachments), February 19, 1952, File, "Jap [anese] Resettlement Area," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of water and Power, Bishop.
45. Burton S. Grant, "Proposed Lease to Inyo County for Manzanar Auditorium," March 28, 1947, Correspondence, March — November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.
46. Burton S. Grant, Chief Engineer of Water Work and Assistant Manager to Mrs. Mary F. Dean, December 3, 1954, File, "Jap [anese] Resettlement Area," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
47, Samuel B. Nelson, Chief Engineer of Water Works and Assistant Manager to Honorable Board of water and Power Commissioners, February 26, 1957, File, "Manzanar Airport, 1956-1974," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
48. Documentation for these activities may be found in File, "Manzanar Airport, 1956-1974," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
49. Christopher Ross, "Return to Manzanar, Americana, XIX (April 1991), p. 56.
50. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearing Before the Subcommittee, May 21, 1991, p. 37.
51. Interview of Sue Kunitomi Embrey by Arthur A. Hansen, David A. Hacker, and David J. Bertagnoli August 24 and November 15, 1973, in Japanese American World War II Evacuation Oral History Project, Part I: Internees, ed. by Arthur A. Hansen (Westport, Connecticut and London, Meckler Publishing, 1991), pp. 149ff.
52. State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Manzanar Feasibility Study, September 1974, p. 2, and "Lost Years Reclaimed," p. 2, Sue Kunitomi Embrey Collection.
53. Undated newspaper clipping, "Manzanar 20 Years Later: Japanese Concentration Camps," Los Angeles Free Press, Sue Kunitomi Embrey Collection, Los Angeles, California; Interview Embrey by Hansen, Hacker, and Bertagnoli, August 24 and November 15, 1973, pp. 153ff; Mike Murase, Manzanar, and Ken Honji, "Home Movies: A Surface Look," GIDRA, May 1973, pp. 4-6 and 6, respectively; and State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Manzanar: Feasibility Study, p. 5.
54. State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Manzanar: Feasibility Study, inside front cover.
56. Wehrey, "Layers of Meaning in a Place and its Past," p. 25.
57. Dean R. VanderWall, President, Lone Pine Chamber of Commerce to The Honorable Edmund G. Brown, Jr., March 7, 1979, File, "Manzanar File (not labeled)," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.
58. Vivian Gonder, et al., to Supervisor, Wilma Muth, March 12, 1979, ibid.
59. Sue Kunitomi Embrey, The Lost Years: 1942-46 (Los Angeles, Manzanar Committee, 1972), p. 2.
60, Quoted in Roger Daniels, "The Conference Keynote Address: Relocation, Redress, and the Report — A Historical Appraisal," in Japanese Americans: From Relocation to Redress, ed, by Roger Daniels, Sandra C. Taylor, and Harry H. L. Kitano (Seattle and London, University of Washington Press, 1991), p. 5.
61, "Lost Years Reclaimed," p. 2, Sue Kunitomi Embrey Collection, and National Park Service, The Preservation Trust/National Trust for Historic Preservation, and National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers, National Register of Historic Places, 1966 to 1994: Cumulative List through January 1, 1994, p. 65.
62. Linda M. Rancourt, "Remembering Manzanar, National Parks, LXVII (May-June 1993), p. 34.
63. "Lost Years Reclaimed," p. 5, Sue Kunitomi Embrey Collection.
64. Newspaper clippings, Pasadena Star-News, May 26, 1992, and San Diego Union — Tribune, May 26, 1992, Files, Library, Pacific/Great Basin System Support Office, National Park Service, San Francisco, California.
65. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearing Before the Subcommittee . . . . May 21, 1991, pp. 1-70.
66. House Report 102-125, pp. 1-10.
67. Congressional Record, June 24, 1991, Vol. 137, No. 98, pp. H 4889-93.
68. Senate Report 102-236, pp. 1-9.
69. Congressional Record, November 26, 1991, Vol. 137, No, 177, pp. S 18284-86.
70, Ibid., February 18, 1992, Vol. 138, No, 2, pp. H 430-35.
71. Ibid., February 19, 1992, Vol. 138, No, 19, pp. H 455-56.
72. 106 Stat, 40, Public Law 102-248, March 3, 1992.
73. Lea Brooks, Inyo Welcomes Manzanar Designation," California County, July/August 1992, pp. 20-21.
74, Robin Winks, "Sites of Shame," National Parks, LXVIII (March/April 1994), p. 22.
75. Frank and Joanne Iritani, Ten Visits: Brief Accounts of Our Visits to All Ten Japanese Relocation Centers of World War II (Sacramento, The Electric Page, 1993), p. 8.
76. Federal Register, Vol. 60, No. 66, April 6, 1995, p. 17572.
77. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service Manzanar National Historic Site, California: General Management Plan and Environmental Impact Statement, 1996. Legislation was introduced in 1995 in the House of Representatives to authorize an exchange of real estate necessary for land acquisition for Manzanar National Historic Site. Sponsored jointly by Representatives Robert T, Matsui and Jerry Lewis, H.R. 3006 passed the House on July 31, 1996. The bill provides for approximately 300 additional acres to the national historic site, thus bringing the total acreage of the site to 813,81. A similar bill will be introduced in the Senate in September 1996.
Epilogue
1. Harold Stanley Jacoby, Tule Lake: From Relocation to Segregation (Grass Valley, California, Comstock Bonanza Press, 1996), pp. xii-xiii, 4-5.
2.For more information on constitutional questions and Supreme Court decisions relating to the evacuation and relocation program, see U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Legal and Constitutional Phases of the WRA Program (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946); Irons, Justice At War, pp. 75-103; Eugene V. Rostow, "The Japanese American cases — A Disaster," Yale Law Journal, LIV (June 1945), pp. 489-533; and Howard Ball, "Judicial Parsimony and Military Necessity Disinterred: A Reexamination of the Japanese Exclusion Cases, 1943-44," in Japanese Americans: From Relocation to Redress, ed. by Daniels, Taylor, and Kitano, pp. 176-85.
3. For more information on these topics, see Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 361-74.
5. Rostow, "Japanese-American Cases," pp. 489-91.
6. Quoted in Roger Daniels, "Redress Achieved, 1983-1990," in Japanese Americans: From Relocation to Redress, ed. by Daniels, Taylor, and Kitano, p. 222.
7. Leslie T. Hatamiya, Righting A Wrong: Japanese Americans and the Passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 (Stanford, California, Stanford University, 1993).
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