MANZANAR Historic Resource Study/Special History Study

WAR RELOCATION CENTERS

Site Selection

Selecting the sites for the relocation centers proved to be a complicated endeavor for the WRA. Two sites — Manzanar and Poston — had been chosen by military authorities before the WRA was established. Manzanar, a site in Owens Valley, California, originally selected and acquired by the Army for a reception or assembly center, was turned over to the WRA to serve as a permanent relocation center on June 1, 1942. The Colorado River Relocation Center site at Poston, Arizona, had been acquired from the Colorado River Indian Reservation for a reception center. The WCCA never operated it, however, as Eisenhower agreed to have WRA staff operate it from the beginning. Because of difficulties in assembling a staff, Eisenhower turned over initial operations to the Indian Service. [16]

Eight more locations were needed — designed to be "areas where the evacuees might settle down to a more stable kind of life until plans could be developed for their permanent relocation in communities outside the evacuated areas." Under the terms of the agreement of April 17, 1942, the War Department and the WRA were required to agree on site locations. Each of these entities, however, had different interests. The WRA retained the portion of its early plan that called for large-scale agricultural programs in which evacuees would clear, develop, and cultivate the land. Thus, the centers were to consist of at least 7,500 acres of land and have agricultural possibilities or provide opportunities for year-round employment of other types. The WRA insisted that the centers not displace local white labor. The War Department, no longer advocating freedom of movement outside the Western Defense Command and concerned about security arrangements, insisted that sites be isolated from civilian population centers and "not be located immediately adjacent to present or proposed military installations or strategically important areas" (a term that included power lines and reservoirs). The Army also wanted each center to have an evacuee population of at least 5,000 and thus keep to a minimum the number of military police that would be needed. Considerations "of good public policy," according to the WRA, "made it desirable to locate the centers on lands either in Federal ownership or available for Federal purchase — so that improvements would not be made at Federal expense to increase the value of private property" Operational requirements dictated the selection of sites that "were within reasonable distance of a railhead and which had access to a dependable and comparatively economical supply of water and of electric power." [17]

To aid in the job of site selection, the WRA enlisted the cooperation of technicians from a number of federal and state agencies, including the Office of Indian Affairs, Soil Conservation Service, Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Farm Security Administration, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Public Health Service, and the National Resources Planning Board. More than 300 proposals were considered on paper, and nearly 100 possible sites were examined by field inspection crews. By June 5, after negotiating with many potentially affected state and local government officials and consulting with War Department personnel, the WRA completed its selection of the final eight sites. (A list of the sites, their location, and projected capacities may be seen on the next page.) [18]

Site Acquisition

Acquisition of the property for relocation center sites was a War Department function, carried out by the United States Corps of Engineers at the request of DeWitt. When military clearance was obtained, DeWitt issued a directive to the Division Engineer, South Pacific Division. who acted for the Chief of Engineers, requesting that he direct the Division Engineer concerned to proceed with the land acquisition. DeWitt notified the governor of the state in which the site was located that, because of military necessity, a relocation center was to be constructed. The cost of acquisition was paid by the WRA. [19]

Site Descriptions

The sites for the relocation centers were much alike in their isolation, rugged terrain, primitive character, and almost total lack of conveniences at the start. [20] More than any other single factor, the requirement for large tracts of land virtually guaranteed that the sites would be inhospitable. As one relocation historian has explained: "That these areas were still vacant land in 1942, land that the ever-voracious pioneers and developers had either passed by or abandoned, speaks volumes about their attractiveness." [21]

Figure 8: U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 22.

An overview of the sites for the relocation centers demonstrates their inhospitable characteristics. Manzanar and Poston, which had been selected by the Army, were in the desert and subject to high summer temperatures and dust storms. Although both would eventually produce crops, extensive irrigation would be needed. Manzanar, which was leased from the City of Los Angeles, had once been the site of ranches and orchards, but since the late 1920s the land had "reverted to desert conditions" as the city exploited its extensive acreage in Owens Valley to provide water for the expanding metropolitan area. Poston's desert climate was particularly harsh and its land was completely undeveloped and covered with brush. While some of its soil was highly suited to irrigation, much was "fourth class and so highly impregnated with salts and alkali that cultivation would be difficult." Gila River, near Phoenix, was subject to extreme summer temperatures, but was situated in a district famous for winter vegetable production. Minidoka and Heart Mountain, the two northernmost centers, were known for harsh winters and severe dust storms. Minidoka's "68,000 acres" were "covered with lava outcroppings in such a way that only about 25 per cent" of the land was "suitable for cultivation," and Heart Mountain had an annual temperature range "from a maximum of 101 degrees above zero to a minimum of 30 degrees below zero." Tule Lake, the most developed site, was located in a dry lake bed formerly controlled by the Bureau of Reclamation in a rich potato-growing section of northern California, and its fertile sandy loam soil was ready for planting. Several thousand acres of the Central Utah site "were in crop but the greatest portion was covered with greasewood brush." Granada was little better, although there was provision for irrigation as much of the site had formerly been a stock ranch. The last two sites — Jerome and Rohwer in Arkansas — were in the Mississippi River delta area and were "heavily wooded," "quite swampy," and subject to severe drainage problems, excessive humidity, and mosquito infestations. [22]

Design and Construction

By June 30, the Colorado River, Tule Lake, and Manzanar relocation centers were in partial operation with a combined evacuee population of 27,766. Four other centers — Gila River, Minidoka, Heart Mountain, and Granada — were under construction. [23]

By September 30, all the relocation centers but one — Jerome in southeast Arkansas — were in operation. Five of them were close to their population capacities, while the other four were still receiving contingents of evacuees. More than 90,000 evacuees had been transferred to the nine operating centers. [24] By November 1, the transfer of evacuees to the relocation centers was completed (see the following page for a list of the relocation centers, their dates of operation, and peak populations), and at the end of the year, the centers had the highest population they would ever have — 106,770. [25]

Design. According to the War Department's Final Report, the design of temporary buildings to house the evacuees at the relocation centers presented a problem to the Army "since no precedents for this type of housing existed." Permanent buildings were not desired. Thus, it was essential to be "as economical as possible and to avoid the excessive use of critical materials." Speed of construction was also "a vital factor because it was desired to move the Japanese out of the Assembly Centers as quickly as possible."

In the report, DeWitt observed that the Army had "available drawings of cantonment type" buildings which "might be classed as semi-permanent, and of theater of operations type buildings which were purely temporary." The latter were intended primarily for rapid construction to house troops in the rear of combat zones.

Theater of operations type buildings, according to DeWitt, "answered most of the requirements for troop shelter but were too crude for the housing of women, children and elderly persons." Normally, this type of housing had no floors; toilet facilities were meager (usually pit latrines); and heating units were omitted in all except extremely cold climates. It was decided, according to DeWitt, "that a modified theater of operations camp could be developed which would adequately house all evacuees, young and old, male and female, and still meet fairly well the desire for speed, low cost, and restricted use of critical materials." [26] Thus, despite the promise that the relocation centers would be more hospitable than the assembly centers, the type of construction chosen for the relocation centers was, according to the WRA, "similar to that in assembly centers." [27]

A set of standards and details for the construction of relocation centers was developed by the WCCA. Adopted in a conference involving DeWitt and a representative of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, they were issued on June 8, 1942, under the title — "Standards and Details, Construction of Japanese Evacuee Reception Centers." Later three supplements were issued: No. 1, dated June 18, listed the hospital equipment to be provided; No. 2, dated June 29, covered fire fighting equipment; and No. 3, dated September 23, included standards for military police housing. (Copies of these standards may be seen in Appendix C of this study.) [28]

Prior to the issuance of these standards, the WCCA experienced difficulty in establishing "uniformity" in facilities to be provided at the various relocation centers, because more than one Engineer Division was involved and each interpreted WCCA requests differently. These standards provided the necessary "uniformity" for center construction after June. The standards "provided a basis on which all of the contractors and engineers could work towards the common goal." Before the standards were issued, however, several centers, notably Manzanar, Tule Lake, Colorado River, one unit at Gila River, had been placed under construction.

Undoubtedly, experience gained during construction of those centers was reflected in the details of the standards. [29]

Figure 9: U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People, p. 17.

Typical Center Lay-Out. In the War Department's Final Report, DeWitt provided details and drawings for a typical relocation center designed for a resident evacuee population of 10,000. The buildings in each center, according to DeWitt, were "grouped as to use." The evacuee housing group was the largest and consisted of the blocks in which the evacuees had their homes. Several blocks in this group were reserved "for future schools, churches, and recreational centers." The other principal groups in each center included administration and warehouse groups, a military police camp, and a hospital. (A copy of a "Typical Plot Plan, War Relocation Center, 10,000 Population" may be seen on the following pages.) [30]

The typical evacuee housing area, or camp, was an approximate square-mile barbed wire enclosure. There were 36 housing blocks. Each block contained 12 barrack buildings (20 feet x 120 feet), a recreation building, a mess hall (40 feet x 120 feet), and a combination H-shaped structure that had toilet and bath facilities for both men and women as well as a laundry room and a heater room. (A copy of a "Typical Housing Block, War Relocation Center" may be seen on the following pages.) [31]

The administration building group comprised the structures devoted to the use of relocation center management. Included in a typical administrative group were four dormitories for non-evacuee employees, two office buildings, a post office, store, fire house, warehouse, shop building, garage, mess hall for the non-evacuee staff, and a recreation building. (A copy of a "Typical Administration Group, War Relocation Center" may be seen on the following pages.) [32]

The military police camp was usually separated from the relocation center proper, thus aiding in the prevention of "fraternization between the guards and the evacuees." The military police buildings on most centers were of the "modified mobilization type," and in a few cases the buildings were of prefabricated construction. [33] The buildings in the group, which provided facilities for one company of military police, included four enlisted men s barracks, a bachelor officers' quarters, headquarters and supply building, guard house, recreation and post exchange building, a dispensary, latrine, and bathhouse, mess hall, and garage. (A copy of a "Typical Military Police Group, War Relocation Center" may be seen on the following pages.) [34]

The hospital building group provided "space for the principal medical activities carried on in any metropolitan community." The hospital buildings included an administration building, doctors' quarters, nurses' quarters, three general wards for adults, an outpatient building, obstetrical ward, surgery building, pediatric ward, mess hall isolation ward, morgue, laundry, two storehouses for supplies and equipment, and a boiler house that supplied steam for heating buildings and operating sterilization equipment. (A copy of a "Typical Hospital Group, War Relocation Center" may be seen on the following page.) [35]

The warehouse group provided storage space for large quantities of food, supplies, and equipment. Some were refrigerated for the preservation of perishable foods, and the balance for storing staple foods, supplies, and equipment. Originally, two 20-foot x 100-foot refrigerated warehouses were provided for a 10,000-person capacity relocation center, but it was found to be more efficient to erect one 40-foot x 100-foot building, divided into compartments for different types of food, such as fruits and vegetables, meats, and dairy products. The standard relocation center of 10,000 evacuees had twenty 40-foot x 100-foot warehouses which were not partitioned or heated for dry storage. (A copy of "Typical Warehouse Group, War Relocation Center" may be seen on page 110.) [36]

Figure 10: Typical Plot Plan, War Relocation Center U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 266.

Figure 11: Typical Housing Block, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 267.

Figure 12: Typical Administration Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 268.

Figure 13: Typical Military Police Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 269.

Figure 14: Typical Hospital Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 270.

Figure 15: Typical Warehouse Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 271.

Construction of the relocation centers included provision for water supply, sewage disposal, electric power and lighting, and telephone facilities. DeWitt described the guidelines and features for installation of each of these systems:

1. Water supply systems, designed to provide 100 gallons per capita per day with ample storage capacity, were constructed to provide adequate water for culinary, sanitary, and fire-protection purposes. In most instances, the water was secured from wells which produced potable water that needed no treatment, but in some centers partial or complete treatment was necessary.

2. Water-borne sewage disposal conforming to minimum health requirements of the respective state health departments was provided. Sewer capacity was based on 75 gallons per capita per day The sewage systems ranged from large septic tanks with no chlorination of effluent to modern disposal plants that included digesters, chlorinators, sludge beds, and effluent ponds.

3. Electric power and lighting was designed on the basis of 2,000 KVA per 10,000 population. Street lighting was installed in the earlier centers, but after the standards were issued one light at each end of all main buildings constituted outdoor lighting.

4. Telephone facilities at relocation centers generally consisted of not more than four trunk lines to a 40-line board with 60 handset stations for administration and operation and 15 handsets for the military police unit. One separate outside line with handset station was provided for the commanding officer of the military police unit. The installation of the telephone systems was conducted or supervised by the Signal Corps of each Service Command in its area. [37]

Construction. Plans and specifications for the construction of the buildings at the relocation centers were prepared at the District Engineer's office in the district in which the centers were located. These plans were submitted for approval to the Civil Affairs Division, General Staff (thence to WCCA) of the Western Defense Command. After approval, contracts were awarded by the district engineers to private construction firms.

During construction of the relocation centers, considerable difficulty was encountered in obtaining building materials and mechanical equipment as well as skilled building-trades craftsmen because of the war emergency. Deliveries were slow, and it was necessary to have "expediters working constantly to speed shipments." Spot shortages of various types of lumber occurred frequently, and nails, pipe, plumbing fixtures, and pumps for water supply and sewage systems were particularly difficult to secure on schedule. Skilled building-trades craftsmen were scarce in some localities, particularly the most isolated locations, and in some cases workers had to be transported long distances. To keep them on the job it was sometimes necessary for contractors to establish commissaries and dormitories near the relocation center sites.

The War Department prepared a preliminary estimate of the cost of building the ten relocation centers on December 1, 1942. The total estimated cost was $56,482,000 or approximately $471 per evacuee. According to the estimates, the most expensive center to be built was at Colorado River ($9,365,000), while the least expensive was Manzanar ($3,764,000). The center having the highest per capita cost was Minidoka ($584), and the lowest was Manzanar ($376). [38]

According to the WRA, "practically all construction and improvement work over and above this subsistence base [as constructed by the Corps of Engineers] was carried out by the evacuees themselves after their arrival at the center." The plan "followed was to bring into each center first a small contingent [about 200] of evacuee specialists — such as cooks, stewards, doctors, and nurses — in order to prepare for the mass arrivals later." As the center began to fill up and the people had a chance to become settled, "improvements on individual family quarters and on the community as a whole were undertaken." [39]

Description of Buildings. The War Department's Final Report provides general standard descriptions of the buildings constructed at relocation centers. The descriptions of these hastily constructed buildings demonstrate the military precision that went into their planning and design and provide ample evidence of their spartan and austere nature.

Originally, barracks or living quarters were 20-foot x 100-foot structures divided into five 20-foot x 20-foot rooms that were termed "apartments" by the Army. To accommodate differences in family sizes the design was changed to provide for 120 foot-long structures with two 16-foot x 20-foot, two 20-foot x 20-foot, and two 24-foot x 20-foot apartments. Ideally, one family was assigned to an apartment, but this goal was not always attained. No toilet or bath facilities were provided in the barracks, because they were located in a common building for each block. A heating unit, either of the cannon type stove or cabinet oil heater variety, depending on the fuel used, was placed in each apartment. In the colder climates wall board was provided to the WRA so that the evacuees could line and seal the interiors of their quarters. The exterior walls and roofs were generally of shiplap or other sheathing covered with tarpaper. One drop light per room was furnished. Floors of the apartments at all centers were wood, except at Granada, where they were built of brick. Single floors were found unsatisfactory because of the cracks which resulted when the green lumber used for construction dried. At several centers, including Manzanar, Tule Lake, Gila River, and Colorado River, the WRA later installed "a patented flooring called Mastipave which gave a smooth, washable surface." Fly screening was provided to the evacuees to make screens for their quarters.

In the first relocation centers to be constructed, such as Manzanar, bachelors were housed in barracks which were not partitioned into rooms. Usually there were two of these buildings to a block, but it was proven to be more efficient to divide all barracks into rooms. Bachelors could then be assigned wherever desired and all buildings were available for the housing of families.

Mess halls were generally 40-foot x 100-foot structures. Approximately one-third of the mess halls' square footage was devoted to kitchen, store room, and space for washing dishes, pots and pans, and kitchen utensils. Windows and doors were screened against flies, and heat was provided by cannon stoves or cabinet heaters. Tables, with benches, to seat 300 persons were standard. Each kitchen was to be equipped with three ranges, 60 cubic feet of electric refrigeration, scullery sinks, hot water heater and tank, cooks' tables, and a meat block. Shelving was built into the store room, and serving counters were provided. Concrete floors were standard after the first four camps, including Manzanar, were constructed with wooden ones.

One recreation building was constructed for each evacuee housing block. This 20-foot x 100-foot structure had no partitions or equipment with the exception of heaters.

A combination latrine and laundry building, constructed in a "H" shape, was located between the two rows of barracks in each block. One side of the structure contained the block laundry, and the other the men's toilet and shower rooms and the women's toilet and bath rooms. A water heater and storage tank were housed in the space forming the cross bar of the "H". The floors of this building were concrete.

The laundry room was fitted out with 18 double compartment laundry trays and 18 ironing boards with an electric outlet at each board. Plumbing fixtures in each unit or block facility were hung on the basis of eight showerheads, four bathtubs, fourteen lavatories, fourteen toilets, and one slop sink for the women; and twelve showerheads, twelve lavatories, ten toilets, four urinals, and one slop sink for men. [40]