MANZANAR Historic Resource Study/Special History Study

INTERNAL SECURITY

Appointed Personnel

On December 10, 1942, four days after the outbreak of violence at Manzanar, the WRA regional director in San Francisco authorized the employment of ten additional Caucasian men to be employed on the center's internal security force. These men were recruited locally as rapidly as possible, and by January 1943 they were working at the center. Several of the recruits were installed as police officers, but most were served as temporary guards. They were permitted to carry sidearms while patrolling the warehouses and appointed personnel living areas. Most of the guards were later terminated and replaced by men "who were better qualified for the work."

On April 21, 1943, John W. Gilkey, the acting chief internal security officer, was made the chief internal security officer. By May 1943, the center's police force had secured five additional Caucasian internal security officers and seven guards. Officers and guards worked in eight-hour shifts and provided 24-hour coverage to the center. One guard was assigned to the telephone switchboard from midnight to 8:00 A.M., while another guard was assigned to the main gate where he issued passes and checked admissions into the center. Other guards patrolled the center and its perimeter as well as the appointed personnel living area. Guards duplicated the patrols of the evacuee police, "watching for fires and endeavoring to prevent crime."

One of the principal problems encountered in recruiting appointed personnel for the internal security positions was to find qualified men who met the job description. They were to have several years of police experience, plus training in a recognized police school, or a training period in the police department of a war relocation center. Often appointments had to be made in which men lacked one or more of the required qualifications, and the WRA was forced to ask the Civil Service Commission to lower the qualifications for appointment.

Retention of appointed personnel internal security officers was difficult, because ex-police officers often terminated when they could not adapt themselves to conditions in the center. At times, men joined the section with the idea that they were going to "push a bunch of Japs around." When they found that this was not permitted at Manzanar, they terminated. The "type of men wanted, and who were finally obtained, were such as could adapt themselves to a program of crime-prevention, who could learn to work with a minority group, and who, at the same time, could be satisfied with the grind of patrol duties."

All Caucasian appointed personnel police officers attended meetings and classes that were organized to assist them in better understanding the type of police work required in a relocation center. They were also "drilled" in WRA regulations and local county ordinances. Soon it became unnecessary to duplicate the patrols of the evacuee police, and thereafter appointed and evacuee personnel "worked in closer harmony on the force."

In December 1944, the associate chief of internal security segregated to Tule Lake. He was replaced by one of the appointed internal security officers, a retired policeman from Los Angeles. On November 1, 1945, besides the chief and his associate, five internal security officers remained on the force. Two of these men were trained police officers, one was a discharged military police officer, one had been trained at Manzanar first as a guard and later as an internal security officer, and the fifth had worked as a guard in Los Angeles defense plants and had trained with the Los Angeles Police Department.

Evacuee Police

At the time of the outbreak of violence at Manzanar on December 6, 1942, Manzanar had 82 evacuees on its internal police force, including three policewomen and three secretaries. The department was divided into three shifts, an office detail, and an investigation unit. The patrolmen wore armbands to identify them as police officers, while the investigators wore plain clothing.

During the afternoon of the violence, nearly all the evacuee police personnel remained on duty, but by the evening, when the trouble flared into shooting, only six men remained on the job. A few of the younger members of the police department had to be removed from the center to Death Valley for protective purposes. On the morning of December 7, no evacuee police reported for duty.

Some of the evacuee officers expressed a desire to return to duty prior to December 26, 1942, the date of the general return to work by all evacuee personnel. These officers held a meeting and decided to return to duty as soon as the residents of the center expressed a vote of confidence in them as police." The block managers met at Town Hall during which "a vote of confidence was given to the police department."

Reorganization of the Police Department

In late December 1942, a plan to reorganize the police department was presented to the block managers. The WRA authorities recommended that each block be represented in the police department by at least one man, and that the block managers give to the department the names of the men they desired to serve as police officers. If the man nominated qualified as a police officer, he would be placed on the payroll. Shortly after January 1, 1943, the police department 'was completely reorganized with most of the officers on the original force being retained." The detective section, however, became known as "investigators," and were required to wear uniforms or other means of identification.

An advisory council was established, consisting of 14 of the older men in the department. This group served in an advisory capacity to the chief internal security officer and the evacuee chief of police. The advisory council functioned in the department to settle internal misunderstandings and dissension and served as "go-between in family troubles, minor disturbances within the Center, and wherever arbitration was required."

The advisory council conducted hearings whenever an evacuee was recommended for dismissal after which it issued a recommendation for dismissal or probation. The chief reasons for discharge were failure to obey orders of superior officers, failure to cooperate with fellow officers, and "making trouble."

In January 1943, the police instructional school reopened, continuing until early 1945. Policemen completed courses in fingerprinting, investigation, laws and procedures of arrest, and regulations and laws of the State of California and Inyo County Traffic control classes were held for selected groups of patrolmen. After March 1945, new men were trained by older members in the department. In June 1943, the policewomen, who were primarily engaged in investigating family problems, were transferred to the welfare section, when "it was found that the work they had been doing could be handled better' by that section.

In December 1943, the officers of the internal security section asked for another election. Because of "political dissension," however, the advisory council urged the chief of internal security to submit names to Project Director Merritt with the request that he appoint an evacuee chief of police and evacuee supervisors for the department. This plan eliminated "the need for elections and the politics that go with elections." The appointments made by Merritt "were a complete success," according to the Final Report, Manzanar, "because the Project Director had made them, for by this time residents of the Center were more than willing to follow the Project Director's every suggestion."

In March 1944, the internal police department was reorganized again at the "request of the personnel of the department." The chief of internal security was "given complete supervision over the evacuee officers." Thereafter, orders were issued directly to the sergeant of a shift or to the investigators without going through the evacuee chief. The position of evacuee chief was eliminated, and the evacuee who held this title was transferred to the investigators' section and given the rank of captain.

As the center population became smaller during 1943-45, the number of personnel on the police force was gradually reduced. Appointed personnel on the force averaged approximately ten during 1943-45. In January 1943, the evacuee police force was nearly 80, but by January 1944 the size of the force had been reduced to approximately 50. In January 1945, there were 37 evacuee men on the force, but by October 1945 only 12 men remained in the department. By November 1, two evacuees were left on the payroll and these terminated within the first week of that month. When evacuee officers terminated for relocation, they were given an identification card "which the men were proud to have as it represented a token of their service in Manzanar.

After the evacuee police left the center, appointed personnel continued to "give the kind of service which the residents had learned to expect." During the closing period, "extra guarding of warehouses became necessary to prevent fire and theft, and unwanted animals were disposed of by shooting and gassing."

Facilities and Equipment

During 1942-43, the Manzanar police department used three half-ton former Civilian Conservation Corps trucks for "sergeant's patrol and emergency calls.' Better vehicles were secured by the end of 1943, and by the end of 1944, the police were using sedans for patrol. These autos were also used to escort residents in the center and assist the relocation office with departing evacuees.

In late December 1944, call boxes, installed for the use of the camp's Fire Department, were placed at the service of the police for emergencies. Although these boxes aided the police force, they did not "answer the need of a signal system" that the department had requested as early as 1943. Thus, the 'usual way to contact a man was by driving through the Center, locating the officer wanted, and giving the information required."

A jail had been built at the rear of the main office in the police station in 1942. It consisted of a room 20 feet square in which was installed a double tank, rented from the sheriff of Inyo County In 1943, wire mesh was placed over the windows of the room. While adequate for overnight prisoners or for those awaiting trial, the jail was far "from suitable to take care of prisoners serving terms." Thus, space was arranged for such prisoners in the county jail in Independence beginning in 1943.

Police officers were permitted to carry clubs while on patrol. The only other weapon permitted the entire force was a sidearm carried by the chief internal security officer, although it was never "necessary to use either clubs or firearms." Judo holds were sometimes used by evacuee police to make arrests.

Police uniforms had first been introduced in November 1942. As produced by the camp's sewing factory, the uniforms consisted of a wine-colored shirt and green pants. Caps were ordered from a mail-order house, and badges were purchased from a Los Angeles badge company.

Although many of the uniforms "fitted poorly," they were used until the fall of 1944, when new uniforms were donated by the block managers. The new uniforms consisted of khaki pants and shirts to match the caps purchased in 1942.

Police Program

Public Relations. During 1942, the evacuees at Manzanar had shown reluctance to make reports to the center's police force. Policemen were generally looked down upon and were often referred to as "dogs" and "stool pigeons." A few policemen were "beaten up" when off duty. Cooperation from the residents was "completely lacking, and when the police worked with the FBI and other outside agencies, popular feeling ran especially high.' Thus, it was 'realized that this fear, resentment, and lack of cooperation must be broken down and corrected before law enforcement could be made an effective reality."

Following the violence on December 6, 1942, the Judicial Council was eliminated, and Project Director Merritt "took over the job of handling the Project court." Sentences currently being served in Manzanar's jail were converted to probation, jail space was rented from the office of the Inyo County sheriff, and all subsequent sentences were served there. Thereafter, sentences to the jail were never for more than 60 days, and most averaged about ten days. Cases were generally decided by probation and suspended sentences. The project director's court soon became known "as being a fair and impartial one with the residents quite satisfied as to the way it was run."

During 1943, the police department undertook activities to regain the confidence of the people. Police officers called on residents and introduced themselves, offering their services. They began delivering telegrams and messages to the residents, calling them on the telephone, picking up and loading baggage for furlough workers, and escorting evacuee teachers who were working late at night to their homes. Evacuee and appointed police gave lectures in the center's schools and block meetings. Older members of the department began to act as arbitrators in family disputes and neighborhood arguments and to settle minor disturbances out of court. Ambulance calls from 5:00 P.M. to 8:00 A.M. were covered by the internal security section. In 1944, for instance, the police carried out the following "small services" for the camp residents: car escorts — 3,464; telephone calls — 369; telegram delivery — 905; message delivery — 3,270; and picking up/delivery of baggage — 2,940.

Gradually, the evacuees began to rely on the police "for all types of assistance." More and more people came to the police "with their problems and troubles." Block managers and others would sometimes warn police of anticipated trouble, whereupon the police would attempt to prevent the trouble from developing.

During 1943-45, the police continued their efforts to stem juvenile delinquency by referring most cases to the welfare section. If a juvenile had to appear before the project court for a hearing, the session would be closed with the parents present to assist in any corrective plans that were determined. The police continued their efforts at crime prevention by assisting community activities and promoting recreational programs that were "directed toward guiding the young people of the Center." The greatest accomplishment of the internal security section was "gaining the confidence of the residents of Manzanar.

Appointed personnel also worked to establish cooperative relationships with outside police authorities, such as the Inyo County sheriff's office, "which harbored resentment against the whole WRA program." The chief internal security officer and his assistant called on the sheriff to offer assistance. They conducted classes in photography and criminal investigation in the sheriff's office, assisted the sheriff in collecting evidence after several murders occurred in the county, and hired two local men who had previously worked for the sheriff. Assistance given to local officers in serving civil papers and provided to the FBI and others with business in the center.

Animal Shelter. The police department maintained and supervised an animal shelter built in July 1943 "to care for or dispose of sick and unwanted animals." Prior to this time, it was not "uncommon for passing motorists to dump their animals on the highway near Manzanar and trust to their being taken care of by the residents." Disposal of these unwanted animals presented problems, until the police were given responsibility over all animals in the center. Several months prior to construction of the animal shelter, a police officer was assigned the task of animal regulation, and a set of animal regulations, adapted from the Palo Alto Humane Society Handbook was prepared. Between May 1 and 15, 1943, all dogs in the center were to be licensed free of charge, and a small metal disk containing a number was issued to the owner to be fastened to the neck of the dog by use of a collar. Block managers notified police when unwanted animals appeared in their blocks. These and other unclaimed animals were disposed of at the animal shelter "through the use of a carbon-monoxide gas chamber." With the cooperation of the health section, all dogs were inoculated for rabies and distemper. The hospital reported cases of animal bites to the police, whereupon the biting animal was picked up and impounded for ten days of observation. After examination by the health section for rabies, the animal, if considered safe, was returned to his owner. If considered dangerous or diseased, the animal was put to death.

Safety Proceedings. The Manzanar Safety Council held regular monthly meetings and made recommendations to Project Director Merritt for safety rules and regulations in the center. The associate chief of internal security was the first appointed personnel member to serve on this council, and he participated in it for two years.

A traffic control program was commenced in March 1943. Following traffic surveys, traffic control signs were installed, indicating speed limits, schools and hospital zones, and stop signs. With a few minor changes, the 1941 California Vehicle Code was accepted as the law for regulating vehicular traffic. The maximum speed limit allowed in the center was 20 miles per hour, except for school and hospital zones where it was set at ten miles per hour. WRA drivers' licenses were required for all drivers, examinations being handled through the motor pool supervisors.

The traffic control program resulted in slower driving and fewer accidents in the center. When an accident occurred, it was investigated by the police who made reports to the survey board and the project director. After being cited for a traffic violation, the offender appeared in the project court. Court hearings resulted in fines, license suspension, or suspended sentences.

Patrolling. During 1942-43, the police patrolled the center on foot with "check-ups" by the patrol sergeant in a car. As men became less available during 1944 and 1945, patrol cars supplemented foot patrols. Constant patrols were maintained at all times in sections of the camp that had the most trouble and violations.

Manzanar evacuees "found it a relaxation and pleasure to wander outside the 'mile-square' Center and into the rest of the [relocation] area where they could build fires for picnics." At times, children ventured out to the farm areas where they interfered with agricultural and irrigation work. Thus, the police "outlined two picnic grounds in some groves, made a number of trails and posted signs" to provide designated recreational spots. The public works section built fireplaces and provided caretakers for the picnic grounds. Picnics and fires were not allowed except in the two designated picnic areas.

Recreational regulations were issued by the center's police force. Persons going to picnic areas were required to present a block manager's pass, or if it was a group of persons, a pass from Town Hall. All picnic parties were to use the west gate on the perimeter of the residential area. The gate guard checked and picked up the passes when the picnickers left the residential area. When they returned, the passes were given back to them for return to Town Hall or to the block managers. A report was made to the chief of internal security if people had not returned to the center by closing time. The motor pool provided transportation for food and to small children and the aged and infirm who had passes to go to the picnic areas.

Persons going to the swimming pool were to use the north or west gates on the perimeter of the residential area, but they had to leave and enter through the same gate. The swimming and wading pool could be used from 1:00 P.M. to 4:30 P.M. on week days and from 9:00 A.M. to 4:30 P.M. on Sundays when a lifeguard was on duty. The pool was reserved for men on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday. Saturday, and Sunday until 1:00 P.M. Women could use the pool on Thursday and Sunday afternoons from 2:00 P.M. to 4:30 P.M. Children under the age of eight could not use the pool, unless accompanied by an older member of the family. The pool was closed in 1945, because lifeguards were no longer available.

To leave the residential area for work purposes, farm and maintenance crews had a blanket pass held by the foreman of the crew, while each member had a badge. The gate guard checked the pass number, made certain that each member of the crew had a badge, both for leaving and entering the gate, and counted the number of men on the trucks. Farm crews were provided white badges, while maintenance crews had red badges. A blue work badge was issued to men and crews that left the area via the east gate for work projects outside the relocation area.

To enforce the regulations in the picnic areas, the police department established a mounted patrol, for which the horses were rented and later purchased. The evacuee mounted patrol covered a beat of about 10 miles per day. On holidays and Sundays, when large crowds were expected, extra police were assigned to the picnic grounds.

Investigations and Arrests. Police investigations were generally conducted by older evacuee police officers, working under the direction of the chief internal security officer. Exceptions to this rule, however, were made for investigations connected with the violence on December 6, 1942, the FBI, military registration, and immigration officials, all of which were handled by appointed personnel officers. During the military registration, the Army reported to the police the names of evacuees who made threats. Caucasian officers, assisted by other appointed personnel, made immediate arrests, and the troublemakers were removed from the center. Arrests were generally made in the middle of the night without incident. Segregation of evacuees to Tule Lake presented few problems or incidents for the police.

Written reports were prepared by the officers making the case investigations. Evacuee police wrote their own reports, but appointed personnel were assigned to follow up the cases to insure that they had been handled properly.

Arrests were made by both evacuee and appointed personnel. No arrest "was made unless a person was 'caught in the act' or unless a warrant had been issued.' Warrants were not issued "without a complete investigation, and a high degree of certainty that the person named in the warrant was the true offender." As a result, the person "charged generally pleaded guilty and was ready for punishment." There are no records "of a person so charged being found 'not guilty.' "

Relocation Office Assistance. The internal security section assisted the relocation office not only by checking the evacuees in and out of the center but also by preparing identification cards for furlough workers and others. The department took photographs and fingerprints of all evacuees who left the center during 1943 and 1944. Evacuee baggage was picked up at the barracks and loaded into trucks and buses, and the evacuees were escorted to the gate clerk's office by police cars. When evacuees returned to the center from leaves or furloughs, they and their baggage were taken home by evacuee police.

During 1944, a "new problem" was presented to the police "in the return to the Center of evacuees who had gone out on visits." At first, the police checked visitors in and out of the main gate, collected money for meals, and notified the records office of arrivals and departures. Later, the fiscal department collected money for meals, and the records office installed clerks at the main gate to check arrivals and departures. However, the police still kept a record and maintained control over all motor vehicles that entered the center. Motor vehicles were grounded at the police station upon their arrival in the center. Automobiles were not released to evacuees until they left the center.

Violations

With the exception of battery (and battery only during 1942 and 1943), violations of law at Manzanar were infrequent. The type of person involved in battery cases "was the first to relocate, for in general he was the kind who did not like restriction and could not get along with other people."

While all violations of law were brought to the attention of the project director, most were taken care of by the police and without a trial in the project court. Acting as arbitrators, the police were "often better able to handle such cases especially when they were matters of threatened disturbance or family and neighborhood misunderstandings." The method used by the police was "to talk with the disturbers of the peace and in some cases to give a police probation to them.' For instance, in a traffic case involving juvenile offenders, the "boys were given a book on traffic investigation," "ordered to study it," and "write a paper on accident investigation."

Several "unlovely types of private business" which persisted at Manzanar despite law enforcement efforts to eliminate them were gambling and the manufacture and sale of liquor. To a lesser extent, there were "occasional charges of prostitution," but there was little evidence "that immorality, especially for hire," was "a grave issue" in the camp. Some individuals in the camp, according to the community analyst, made "a rather good living by gambling." This form of private enterprise was difficult to cope with "because the laws of the State of California" were "exceedingly mild and the "Project Director's authority" was the "sole instrumentality in dealing with the matter." The manufacture and sale of liquor, "usually rice wine and brandy," posed continuing problems for the police. Brandy, especially, brought high prices among the evacuees. While it was probably impossible to eliminate such traffic entirely, the police made efforts to keep it from getting "out of hand." [64]

Violation of the center's rules against intoxication generally resulted in project court "probations for the first offense.' For the second and subsequent offenses, however, sentences to the county jail were given.

The project regulation that was hardest to prevent was that of "going out of bounds, or, in other words, the act of leaving the Center without a proper pass." According to the Final Report, Manzanar, the "attraction of the mountains for hiking and climbing, the nearby creeks for fishing — not to mention the satisfaction gained from going outside of the Center for a while — were all great temptations to many of the residents." This was "true even when the Military Police were stationed in towers guarding the Center with guns and searchlights." The punishment prescribed by the project court was "generally to be put on probation." Much "attention was given to publicity against this form of conduct, but in spite of all that could be done to prevent it, the 'out of bound' violation never completely stopped.

The total number of cases which were reported to the Manzanar police from September 1942 to November 1945 was 1,285 (there had been 136 arrests prior to September 1942). Of this total, 186 cases were pending at the time of the center's closure, while 1,099 had been closed. A total of 238 persons were arrested in cases arising during this period. These cases were classified as follows: