Big Bend Administrative History

Maintenance of a good rapport with the Amon Carter-led fundraising campaign prompted regional officials to draft an immediate response to Connally's inquiries. Jerome Miller advised Milton McColm to tell the TBBPA that "water is now available in the basin area, sufficient to supply the CCC camp needs." The camp drew its water from three wells that Miller believed "would probably be sufficient for public use in the future." He noted that the crews had begun drilling for "an additional deep well farther to the south in the basin area and nearer to the proposed lodge development." Miller expressed the hope that "water will be found at this new location sufficient to supply all future needs for the basin development," with "other wells . . . drilled in the more isolated developed areas as future needs dictate." The landscape architect was less knowledgeable of Connelly's query about "damming the Rio Grande to provide an artificial lake for recreational purposes." Miller had heard that "the Bureau of Reclamation is considering several site locations for such a dam." He informed McColm that "no definite commitments have been made concerning the construction of such a dam." As for visitor facilities, Miller reported that "tourist housing and camping accommodations are being considered on a large scale in the basin area of the Chisos Mountains." In addition, "several smaller overnight units are also contemplated in several of the more isolated canyons of the Chisos Mountains." For visitor access, Miller noted that "the park entrance road now extends into the basin as far as the proposed lodge site." The CCC had under construction "foot and bridle trails . . . from this point [that] will eventually extend as far south as the south rim." Any other road development under discussion "will be minor in character," the architect stated, "and, to a great extent, follow existing county roads within the area." At that, "this minor road development will not be undertaken for some time." [65]

McColm concurred in the judgments of his landscape architect, and replied to Connelly that the NPS appreciated the anxiety facing the fundraisers as they solicited support for a park that had yet to open. The Chisos CCC camp had over 200 employees engaged in all manner of facility development, while park service personnel collected information for the master plan of development. McColm strengthened Miller's argument against a recreational reservoir within the boundaries of the future park, noting to Connelly that "a project of this kind would not conform to the Service's policies as development in national parks." The acting regional director conceded that "it is not possible at this time to give you any information concerning the estimated annual expenditure of Federal funds for development and maintenance purposes." Such numbers, said McColm, "cannot be determined until the development by the CCC has progressed sufficiently to determine the needs of both further development and maintenance funds, which funds will then be requested from the Congress;" a feature that "cannot be requested until the national status of the area has become a reality." Connelly's query about planning for visitor accommodations would be resolved once the NPS had drafted its master plan, and McColm reminded the TBBPA secretary that "the job of planning the development of the Big Bend for a national park is no small task and will require considerable comprehensive study before the ultimate can be reached." [66]

Private fundraisers were not the only parties curious in the spring of 1940 about facility planning at Big Bend. The army's Colonel Richmond had approached regional officials about the use of two of the cabins located in the Chisos basin for military personnel stationed at the camp. Regional director Tolson asked John Diggs to determine the merits of this request, but the NPS inspector discovered obstacles in the way. "It appears probable," wrote Diggs, "that it was not made clear by Inspector Higgins that the buildings in question are not CCC nor National Park Service property." Instead the cabins "were built by individuals of this Service on State land, and have been considered as State property with some degree of claim vested in individuals of this Service." The CCC camp had provided electricity and water to the cabins. This situation had arisen when the CCC abandoned the Chisos unit, and the cabin constructed by former superintendent Robert Morgan had been sold to Lloyd Wade. Senior foreman Elmer Davenport had built another, while former employees of the NPS had constructed two more cabins. The new executive secretary of the state parks board, Frank D. Quinn, granted Tolson authority to resolve the matter of military housing at the Chisos camp. Diggs suggested that "harmony among Park Service and Army employees would be best maintained by letting personnel of each Service use the buildings for short periods, two or three weeks, as time permitted, during the summer months." This was preferable to one suggestion that the NPS divide the four cabins on site in half between the army and park service, in that "our Service has eight employees and the Army only four (Commanding Officer, Second in command, Medical Officer and Educational Advisor)." McColm agreed with Diggs' assessment of the housing situation, modifying it only slightly to offer one cabin to Army personnel "for occupancy as they desire." [67]

Resolution of the army's lodging needs was the least of the park service's concerns that spring as the master plan and facility development proceeded. By April the demands of a 200-plus CCC crew on the water supply of the Chisos basin had become acute. H.E. Rothrock, acting chief of the NPS's naturalist division in Washington, advised regional officials to monitor withdrawals from the basin. "The reserves are definitely limited," Rothrock contended, "and the use of the area should be planned with this limitation in mind." His own research in the mid-1930s had revealed that "water in the Basin is stored in the alluvial material contained therein." Water collected from the "rains and snows which fall within the 9-square-mile area of the Basin," and was "discharged by surface run-off, subsurface seepage, transpiration, evaporation, and by public use." During Rothrock's most recent visit to the basin, he learned that "the water level had been lowered appreciably in the wells, due to the generous use of these supplies by the CCC camp." It was obvious that the camp drew down water more rapidly than its recharge rate. The result for Rothrock would be "a serious shortage in this locality." Compounding the problem for the park service was a lack of knowledge of the volume of water beneath the basin. One could attempt to estimate the quantity, but "so many unknown factors exist that this approach to the problem is not practicable until more geologic data are available." Rothrock did offer an alternative: "A measure of the reserves . . . may be obtained from a study of the effect of the withdrawals from the wells." While the CCC did not draw water from the breadth of the basin, its wells "may be taken as representative of a large section thereof, and . . . the Service should take immediate steps to obtain specific data from them." [68]

Yet another issue at Big Bend attracting the attention of NPS officials in Washington that spring was the recommendation of Harvey Cornell for road construction within the future park. Conrad Wirth reviewed Cornell's report, and reminded him that "when we were first considering the study of the Big Bend we went over this ground quite thoroughly." Wirth noted that "it is the general belief that the section of the river area between Santa Helena Canyon and Boquillas should be left undisturbed and that the buildings and development there now should be eliminated to assure a proper range for the antelope." Demonstrating the NPS's preference for a pristine natural environment at the expense of cultural resources preservation, Wirth recounted for the regional office the fact that "apparently at one time there was considerable antelope in the section immediately west, east and north of the Mariscal Mountains." He also indicated that "perhaps some time a road would be necessary down into Mexico and that by bringing the road down by Marathon and Alpine it could spread from [the] north to the east and west of the Chisos Mountains, one going to Boquillas and the other to Santa Helena Canyon." Should this transportation network be implemented, said the NPS supervisor for land planning, "the road could cross into Mexico somewhere near Boquillas and go down to the Mt. Carmel Range [the Sierra del Carmen], circulating the Mexico Park and coming back to the Rio Grande River, crossing it somewhere in the vicinity of Smoky Creek or Castillian [Castolon]." Wirth found this scenario appealing, "and even if the road is not built into Mexico, it would not necessarily have to go along the Rio Grande on the American side." He suggested that if Cornell would "spot Boquillas and the mouth of Santa Helena Canyon on the map, you will notice it is just about as short going around to the north of the Chisos Mountains as it is to go around the south of the Mountains." Wirth offered this idea in part because "there is not sufficient supporting data to give real serious consideration to a road along the Rio Grande." The NPS planning chief emphatically added: "I certainly do not give a great deal of weight to the necessity for a military road along the River." [69]

Wirth then turned to Cornell's recommendation for a route from Green Gulch to the South Rim, reminding the landscape architect that "that country is extremely rugged." The NPS could design "two ways to get a road to the South Rim," Wirth conceded, "through a terrific cut and switchbacks scarring the mountain side severely," or "as I visualize it, by some tunneling which would be expensive, yet would perhaps scar the mountain less." When one approached the South Rim, one found that "the area is considerably limited and a steep grade approaches the rim itself." In addition, "a good part of the area would have to be regraded and worked over for parking purposes." If Cornell "wanted a road that would give you a view to the south," said Wirth, "it would seem to me that the proper solution would be to turn to the southeast, passing between Lost Mine Peak and Emory Peak, skirting the side hill to whatever elevation is necessary to look across Juniper Canyon to the southeast." From there the highway engineers could design a road to "slide out into the flat land down near Rocky Spring." Wirth realized that "this would be purely a mountain drive with no development, but it certainly would give a grand and glorious view to the south." [70]

Traffic into the basin concerned other NPS planners as the park service concluded its deliberations on road building strategies. Walter McDougall, regional biologist, informed his director that "the circle at the end of the road that extends to the proposed lodge site in the Basin is very evidently being used as a campground by the visiting public." McDougall had been told that "there is probably an average of two or three cars per day throughout the year that bring camping parties to this place." Their carelessness and the lack of formal facilities left the grounds "exceedingly dirty and unsightly." The biologist found campsites "littered with beer cans and other tin cans," while "the campers have cut down a number of trees for firewood and have destroyed other vegetation." He recommended to the regional director that "a job be set up to clean up this place and that a temporary campground, with refuse containers and possibly fireplaces, be constructed, either at this same place or elsewhere." These facilities could be installed "pending the establishment of a national park, or at least pending the construction of several overnight cabins which, I understand, are being contemplated." Once these structures were in place, wrote McDougall, "it is suggested that the CCC Project Superintendent be delegated to supervise camping in this area." The park service's "Regional Forester" also could "make recommendations concerning firewood for the use of campers," as McDougall doubted that "there is much wood in the area that can be used without detriment to the forests and to wildlife." Despite these obstacles, said the NPS biologist, "something should be done to prevent the cutting of valuable trees for firewood." [71]

As park officials debated measures to control access to the fledgling CCC camp, local park advocates accelerated their pleas for visitor accommodations with the onset of the summer touring season. Benjamin Berkeley wrote to the Santa Fe regional office on May 8 to expedite the work order of the CCC superintendent for the construction of six cabins in the Chisos basin. "I wish that you might see our files of requests from various organizations, individuals and groups," said the Alpine chamber of commerce director, "that are making inquiry almost daily concerning lodging and meal facilities at the Park." Berkeley claimed that "nothing would be of greater value in selling Texas on this worthy enterprise more than the public having knowledge of the fact that they could visit the area with access to these accommodations." [72]

Berkeley's plea for NPS work on lodging resulted from a visit paid to the Big Bend area two weeks earlier by J.E. Kell of the landscape architecture division. Kell and several other park service specialists had come to the basin "in search of a site for the six cabins to be constructed by surplus CCC funds." They learned that "most of the high juniper flats were on land not now owned by the state and were also too difficult of access by road." The architects then identified "a lower juniper flat [that] . . . was on park land and on the first ridge south of the main lodge development site." This section of the basin was "easily accessible and could be controlled from the lodge eventually." Kell could find "no other areas outside the Basin . . . since other suitable cabin sites are not available on land now owned by the state." The architect informed his superiors that "topography will be prepared immediately by the camp personnel," while "a preliminary layout and working drawings for the cabins will be prepared in the Regional Office." To meet the need for building materials, said Kell, "it was suggested that the making of adobes be started as soon as possible." Then the architectural review team analyzed potential sites for trails, recommending that "the trail from the lodge site to Lost Mine Peak be undertaken first." In addition, NPS planners should rethink their strategies for "planting now underway on the roadslopes." Kell observed that "native material was being obtained within the Basin area and adjoining hillsides." He suggested that "no plant material should be collected in the Basin or Green Gulch or any other of the canyons which might eventually be included in the park development." Kell also disliked the use of "additional guard rock . . . added to the road shoulder on the steep fills along the road into the Basin." CCC crews had set the rocks on end, presenting what Kell called "an undesirable appearance." Instead the landscape architect wanted "all guard rock [to] . . . be large, placed on their natural bed, and well anchored in the ground." [73]

With Kell's report and Berkeley's inquiry in hand, NPS regional director Milton McColm discussed the visitor accommodation strategies at his disposal. The NPS had $5,000 with which to design and build the cabins, but soon realized the "need of a building for a concessioner to operate the cabins and supply the necessary commodities to visitors to the Big Bend." McColm requested of park service headquarters that "an additional amount of $2500 be allotted for the construction of a permanent concession building, consisting of a sales room and living quarters." McColm wanted the structure "located on the site selected . . . within the lodge and cabin area as shown on the present master plan." Should the Washington office not have the funds, said McColm, "it is requested that an allotment of $1,000 be provided for a temporary structure of similar accommodations to be located not far from the CCC camp, along the entrance road to the cabin area." Then if the thousand dollars were not forthcoming, the regional director thought that "it would be possible to erect a temporary store building in this latter location for an amount of approximately $500, and permit the concessioner to occupy one of the cabins being constructed from the present $5,000 special allotment." McColm warned that "it would be difficult to obtain a concessioner to operate only the six cabins." Thus the park service should "give more inducement to a possible concessioner" by allowing "the erection of tent accommodations by the concessioner in the area between the CCC camp and the approach road to the cabin and lodge site." This arrangement, McColm admitted, "would, of course, be of a very temporary nature and a permit agreement would be drawn up on a year-to-year basis only." [74]

Because of the complex partnership between the NPS and the state parks board, the former (which oversaw master planning for the future national park) had to defer to the judgment of the latter on the matter of concessions operations. John R. White, who served briefly in 1940 as regional director of the NPS, wrote to Frank D. Quinn on May 11 to convey his office's thoughts on the growing controversy surrounding accommodations. "It seems clear that the construction of this unit must depend upon the operation," said White, "that is, it is futile [for] the National Park Service to construct these buildings within the state park area unless there will be means of operating them when the job is done." White's staff called for initiation of the concession facilities at once, so that "this work will be completed early this fall." The NPS needed the parks board to "make the necessary arrangements for some concessionaire to operate this first unit of accommodations in the present Big Bend State Park." White promised Quinn that "so far as the maintenance of these buildings are concerned, as long as a CCC camp is present in the Big Bend area, we shall, of course, expect to perform any necessary maintenance." [75]

With visitor access now a priority for the park service, despite the interim nature of work on infrastructure and facilities by the CCC crews, the agency decided in June to expand the operations of the museum in the Chisos Basin, and to hire an education specialist "for the purpose of training and maintaining of enrollee attend[a]nts." The job description prepared by camp superintendent Kirk Scott offered as a rationale the fact that "the Museum contains many geological specimens collected from the Park Area (proposed)." Among these Scott cited "vertebrates, the most abundant of which are dinosaur bones, many species of invertebrates, lithological specimens of both igneous and sedimentary rock, and some minerals." Scott's application noted that "since it is one of the few features in the proposed park that is accessible by improved road practically every visitor to the Area goes through the Museum." Given the volume of visitation, Scott saw "a need for intelligent enrollee attend[a]nts who have some knowledge of . . . the specimens on display, where they were found in the park and some brief history of their origin and age." The superintendent also wanted presentations on "the Park Area as a whole including the features of interest and something of the proposed plan of development." "Such information intelligently given," said Scott, "would be to the advantage of the Service, in that it would give the average visitor a better knowledge and idea of what we are trying to accomplish." He anticipated the training process to "consist of giving special instructions by qualified technical service personnel to at least 3 intelligent enrollees who have pleasing personalities and who are neat and clean in appearance." The trainees also would avail themselves of the catalogue written by Ross Maxwell, which contained "common names, scientific names, Geologic information, location, collector and date of collecting." [76]

As superintendent Scott worked to strengthen museum services at Big Bend, he also faced the problem of CCC foremen utilizing the structure for their living quarters. Inspector Diggs found while visiting the Chisos unit in June that "the quarters provided in the technical service quarters building were inadequate to house all supervisory personnel." Diggs believed that Scott and the army commander did not realize that "the temporary museum . . . was not actually a part of the camp, since it is provided electric lights, water and fire protection service by the camp utilities." CCC supervisors lodged at the museum "were certified for deduction by the Project Superintendent and the Camp Commander," Diggs told the regional director, "without regard to the fact that they were not quartered in the technical service quarters." The army then agreed to reconfigure its quarters to permit more personnel to reside there, at which time the NPS would propose "to submit a job for thoroughly cleaning the museum, and following such cleaning and disinfecting it will be available for the temporary stay of Regional Office technicians who may wish to visit the area." Otherwise, the park service would have to "vacate the museum building by housing the personnel in tents borrowed from the Army at Fort Bliss." [77]

Summer construction work allowed the NPS more opportunity to develop visitor facilities, even as the master plan remained on the drawing board. Jerome Miller returned to Big Bend on June 25 to examine progress on the "proposed cabin road" in the basin. He found that the layout of the six cabins followed closely the recommendations made earlier that spring, and suggested that "a small, temporary, portable structure should be built to house groceries and other supplies." CCC crews had dug a well to a depth of 85 feet, "with progress slow due to other jobs which the contractor has underway." Miller encouraged diligence on this matter "in order that water may be supplied to the cabins before the next tourist season." Then he studied the crews' efforts at building adobes. "Approximately 12,000 adobes are now made," reported Miller, "with good progress in evidence." The landscape architect judged the mud bricks to be "satisfactory." The CCC also took "stone samples . . . for foundations, chimneys and retaining walls." Miller urged that "no batter is to be applied to these masonry walls except where large natural boulders may be placed at the grade line." All that remained was for "accurate topography [to] be obtained on the store and horse concession site," which Miller wanted "submitted to the Regional Office showing trees and other natural features at 20 scale with one foot contour interval [including a parking site]." [78]

By August of 1940, the CCC had completed no fewer than 31 permanent and temporary structures in the Chisos Basin. This complex included six barracks for the crews, workshops, buildings for recreation and for education, the Big Bend museum, and a radio station operated by the army. That month the CCC also found new water at a depth of 383 feet "about 1,000 feet southeast of the proposed Lodge site," according to a report filed by Ross Maxwell. The geologist surmised that the layer of sandstone where the well struck water would hold additional quantities in other portions of the basin, and thus encouraged regional officials to drill for more. "On the other hand," cautioned Maxwell, "the rocks in the Basin have been highly deformed and, since about 90% of the surface is covered with alluvium, it is almost impossible to determine the details of the geology." Thus he cautioned that "to drill deeper might increase the amount of water," even as "the drill might penetrate a fault zone and allow the present supply to escape into a fissure." Given the volume of water needed for existing CCC operations, Maxwell recommended that "we should develop the present supply and not experiment at the present time." [79]

As the contours of Big Bend National Park emerged in the fall of 1940, the park service and state parks board prepared for visitors and the need for services to accommodate them. Minor R. Tillotson, named regional director in September, had met a Fort Worth woman named Mrs. W.F. Young who expressed an interest in the commercial opportunities of Texas's first national park. Mrs. Young had wanted to acquire "land or lease in the Big Bend National Park vicinity" so that she might "open a General Merchandise store of drugs, groceries[,] a bit of dry goods, souvenirs and anything for which there might be a sale." She also wished "to build a cabin or two and later add more as the tourist travel increases." Mrs. Young's curiosity about Big Bend had originated in a tour that she had taken to west Texas, especially her travels from Alpine to Terlingua to the Chisos CCC camp. "Terlingua is the only place," she told Frank Quinn, "where a goodly amount of supplies is kept, chiefly because of its being a little mining center." Young claimed that "there is more travel on the Marathon highway south and there are three small places with a mediocre amount of merchandise." She informed the state parks board secretary that "on the whole trip from Alpine to Marathon I passed or met approximately 100 cars and trucks, of which I kept a close check." Should Quinn grant her request, Young asked for a site "right at or very close to the forks of the road where one goes to Hot Springs, Boquillas and the other to the C.C.C. Headquarters and Terlingua." She estimated that "from 10 to 25 acres would be about all I would need," and hoped that Quinn could provide her with "information about [the] water supply." [80]

With the close of the summer visitor season, NPS officials faced less pressure from local park advocates for road construction and concessions development. While part of the reason was the decline of travelers, another was the anticipation of passage in the 1941 session of the Texas legislature of a bill to fund the purchase of land for Big Bend National Park. For these reasons the park service could address the challenges of design and construction without the intense scrutiny of the previous spring and summer. Yet the architects assigned to Big Bend found troubling one feature of their work: the use of adobes in the tourist cabins of the Chisos Basin. The first CCC program had used lumber to build frame dwellings and camp facilities, with an eye towards eventual replacement by more permanent structures. When the camp reopened in early 1940, the press for tourist cabins instead of maintenance buildings caught planners off-guard, resulting in September with the report of Lyle Bennett, associate architect for the Santa Fe region. Bennett and Kell surveyed the work site in the basin with camp superintendent Scott, and expressed concern about the foundation work at the cabins. "Stone work to date," said Bennett, "is very much out of character with the style of building designed." The NPS architect claimed that "the drawings were not carefully studied in regard to the type of masonry desired and the pattern used is both inconsistent with the material available and the character of the building." Bennett predicted that "the masonry on these buildings is of sufficient importance in establishing a precedent for future construction to warrant reconstruction of a large part of it." The work crews had at their disposal two types of native stone: "a white stone which is to be painted where exposed in walls but should not be exposed below approximate floor line;" and "a weathered stone which is to be used exclusively where floor line is above grade but should appear occasionally at grade above floor line, particularly as foundation stones for chimneys." [81]

Of more significance to Bennett was the difficulty encountered in the use of adobe for building construction. The regional office had embraced this distinctive style of architecture as its signature, from the new regional headquarters in Santa Fe to the visitor centers and administrative compounds of its parks and monuments that stretched from the deserts of Arizona and New Mexico to the mesas and canyons of southern Colorado. Tourists encountered the aesthetic charms of adobe when they visited places like Santa Fe and Albuquerque, and the Santa Fe Railway and the Southern Pacific Railway used southwestern themes and icons in their national advertising. For these reasons, the NPS in the 1930s preferred to use adobe wherever possible, and Bennett noted this in his review of the work of the CCC at Big Bend. "The average size of stone," said the NPS architect, "should grade from large in the lowest part of walls to small in the upper part of walls." When the crews placed the stones "on interior and porch walls, the average size . . . should approximate an adobe size." The workers also should exercise care that "these stones are laid horizontally and on their natural bed," so as to distribute their weight more evenly. [82]

Unfortunately for the CCC crews and park service planners, the soil in the Chisos Basin failed to meet the standards for building construction. "The adobes now on hand are of very poor quality," wrote Bennett, "and it is very doubtful whether these can be painted as originally intended." The architect observed that "the clay used expands when wet and cracks as it dries and may result in a very unstable wall although protected with plaster." Bennett conducted an "investigation of the soil between headquarters and the north entrance," only to conclude that these areas "showed similar surface characteristics." He encouraged the CCC to undertake a "further search for a good weathering adobe," and suggested that "tests [be] made on the present adobes before they are used in the cabins." "Until the quality of masonry and adobes has improved," said Bennett, he could not approve of continued work, despite the need to erect visitor accommodations before the onset of winter, and also the potential for reductions in force in the CCC itself. [83]

Bennett's review of facilities development at Big Bend reminded regional officials of the haste of planning under duress. Kirk Scott thanked Bennett for his thoroughness and detail, and noted that "the only regret is that we did not have something of this kind before construction was started." The camp superintendent and his crew "did not know that two types of stone were planned and were somewhat in the dark concerning the indications of the original drawings." Scott advised the NPS architect that the CCC workers realized the problem of adobe construction, as "we are conducting tests with different mixes using a larger portion of sand than in ones now on hand." The superintendent told Bennett that the bricks "when first made gave every evidence of being a good slick adobe for painting." Yet upon their "exposure to weather they do not seem to stand up." Scott doubted "very seriously our ability to find a material in the area that will meet requirements for painting." Instead, the crews hoped to "secure a sandy soil with gravelly particles for making adobe brick that will stand up if plastered." The superintendent lamented, however, that "this soil would have to be hauled about 30 miles from [the] vicinity of Terlingua or San Vicente." [84]

Stabilization of the adobes at Big Bend required analysis of mud and sand combinations at NPS laboratories in Washington. In the interim, Bennett suggested that Scott's work crews conduct their own field tests to determine whether they could prepare better adobes without the cost of transportation. "Fine sand should be added to the clay," wrote Bennett, "until stresses set up by shrinking are eliminated." He counseled that "the amount of water added to the clay is important and controls the extent of compaction and reabsorption of water after drying." In mixing varying degrees of water, Bennett hoped that "the sample showing the greatest weight per unit volume (dry) will represent maximum density which is necessary to reduce reabsorption of water and swelling after drying." The architect then dismissed the use of straw to stabilize the bricks, "as the straw presents a hazard to painting." Instead Bennett recommended "that it not be used in new adobes unless chopped into short lengths and used sparingly," and he preferred "to eliminate the straw entirely." One final suggestion was that "if, after experiments with sand and water, the cured adobes continue to swell and crack upon exposure to rain and drying, it may be necessary to add bitumels to the adobe." These particles "would prevent reabsorption of moisture after curing which is now causing the most damage." Even with this process, Bennett concluded, "it will be necessary to determine the proper sand and water content required to obtain a good solid adobe before bitumels are used." [85]

The experiments conducted by the CCC on adobe construction at Big Bend would have implications for future facility design at the park, as the park service contemplated using adobe in areas where local residents had not considered. By late November, the camp superintendent had informed regional officials of the data on field tests of adobe. CCC crews had formed bricks without straw that contained anywhere from no sand to three-quarters sand, then made adobes that were dry, medium wet, and wet. These 30 bricks underwent tests for cracks, density, tensile strength, and resistance to water sprays. Superintendent Scott reported that "the ones with the high clay content stood up better than the ones with a high sand content." Then the crews made 30 new bricks with straw, and concluded that "although there was some advantage indicated it was not enough to compensate for the disadvantage they would offer to painting." Once the CCC workers had completed all tests, they decided that "the adobes made with a 33 1/2% or 40% sand content, mixed comparatively dry, will be the most satisfactory provided the primer oil coat and the paint give adequate protection from the erosive effects of rain." Scott believed that he had a solution to the matter of adobe construction, and thus asked architect Bennett for advice on the addition of flagstone floors to the adobe cabins. Finally, the superintendent wondered "how masonry chimneys and adobe walls are to be tied together without the adobes settling and showing a crack." [86]

By year's end, the regional office had achieved consensus on the use of adobe in the Chisos Basin. Bennett had in hand the data from the CCC experiments and the Washington laboratory, and realized that "results of tests on adobes correspond to results observed on other jobs." He worried that "the data submitted did not indicate whether observations were made on swelling and checking after wetting and drying." The bricks sent to the regional office had been "subjected to wetting and drying without showing any indications of checking or swelling," while "the paint appeared to be very satisfactory and penetrated well into the adobe." Bennett thus concurred with the recommendations of Scott "that if the manufacture of the adobes is well controlled, the adobes should be satisfactory." He then cautioned the CCC superintendent about cyclical maintenance of the adobe buildings, especially the need for painting. "It will be necessary that the walls be completely dry and surfaces in good condition before painting," advised the NPS architect, with painting "done only in warm or hot weather and when the humidity is low." He suggested that Scott "note the fact that the barracks at Fort Davis were originally painted and although abandoned many years [since 1891] the paint coat on the adobes still remains in many places." Bennett was less sanguine about the potential for building stone fireplaces in the adobe cabins. "It is practically impossible to lay adobe against a stone wall without getting a crack during the time required for the mortar to shrink," wrote the architect, and he offered "several precautions . . . to keep shrinkage to a minimum;" each of them time-consuming, expensive, and requiring attention to detail not needed for stone or frame construction. [87]

Parallel with the private fundraising efforts to purchase land for Big Bend National Park, the designs and strategies of the CCC and the park service in the late 1930s kept alive the dream of Everett Townsend and other park sponsors that Texas would have a state-of-the-art facility along the Rio Grande. Despite the two-year hiatus in planning and construction for the Lone Star state's first national park, the quality of work and the beauty of the surroundings motivated park officials and private interests alike to pursue funds for Big Bend. A federal agency with national wage scales, job training, and employee housing was a novel concept in a land suffering from the dual traumas of drought and failed investment practices. A state that had had little interaction with the United States government other than the armed services and the post office developed a partnership with the NPS that taught both organizations how to collaborate on projects of lasting benefit to its citizenry. For its part, the park service gained more exposure to the complex world of Texas politics, heritage, and land-use patterns. Finally, the momentum sustained by the CCC and park sponsors would result after 1941 with the successful campaign to elicit financial support from the Texas legislature and the U.S. Congress, making Big Bend National Park a shining example of the goals set forth in 1933 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to redefine the American Dream and put the nation back to work.

Figure 14: "Dallas Hut" Guest Room, Chisos Basin (c. 1950)