Brown v. Board of Education National Historic SiteThe Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site was established in Topeka, Kansas, on October 26, 1992, by Public Law 102-525. The site, which includes the historic Monroe School and adjacent grounds, commemorates the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that ended segregation in public schools throughout the nation. In May of 2004, on the 50th anniversary of the decision, the park opened to the public. The history of the park could be said to have its roots in 1985 when Justice Warren Burger, former Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, called upon the National Park Service (NPS) to conduct a survey of properties associated with the U.S. Constitution. Brown v. Board of Education was among the sites so identified. In 1988, members of the family of the lead plaintiff, Oliver Brown, and other community members created the Brown Foundation for Educational Equity, Excellence and Research. In 1990, the Brown Foundation rallied the community to support the preservation of Monroe School, listed as a National Landmark in 1991.A virtual walkthrough of the historic Monroe School can be accessed through Google Maps Street View EntranceSegregation is defined as “separation, or special treatment, of individuals from a larger group.” In United States’ history, the term refers to the separation of individuals based on race. It originated as a result of a law passed in Louisiana in 1890 that called for “equal but separate” accommodations on railroads for “whites” and “colored.” A group decided to test the constitutionality of the Separate Car Law. The resulting case went to the Supreme Court and is known as Plessy v. Ferguson.
Beginner Question:Why were schools in the United States segregated? Intermediate Question:What was Plessy v. Ferguson, and how did this law affect American society? Advanced Question:What kind of equality did the Separate but Equal law produce?  Segregated facilities in place for “colored” people were provided under the Plessy v. Ferguson law. In the ruling, Justice Henry Billings Brown concluded that the law was “powerless to eradicate racial instincts,” and that equal rights did not necessitate the “enforced commingling of the two races.” In 1949, Monroe Elementary was one of four segregated elementary schools in Topeka. Unlike southern states, Kansas law only permitted segregation in elementary schools and only in cities with more than 15,000 residents. These students would attend integrated junior high and high schools.
 The separation of white and black children in Topeka’s public elementary schools did not occur swiftly. School boards were granted discretionary power to “provide separate schools for the education of colored and white children,” yet Topeka moved cautiously towards creating a dual school system.  Attorney Charles Hamilton Houston was known as “The Man Who Killed Jim Crow.” From 1938–1950, attorneys like Houston argued cases against segregation in higher education. They proved that separate facilities provided unequal educational opportunities because of varying interpretations of equality. AuditoriumJim Crow laws legally sanctioned segregation. Settlement patterns, economics, changing demographics, and court cases all contributed to how legal sanctions and discrimination evolved and changed in the military, transportation, and education. In Topeka, the dual school system functioned adequately mainly because the school district maintained a standard of “as equal as possible.” This auditorium is symbolic of a tangible level of equality, within a segregated community.
Beginner Question:Where did the term Jim Crow come from?Intermediate Question:How were Jim Crow laws incorporated into American society?Advanced Question:When did Jim Crow laws become illegal? The four "colored" schools in Topeka functioned as gathering places for the black community. On Saturday nights, high school students would meet for entertainment at “The Downbeat,” an event coordinated by the Downbeat high school club, which held meetings at the "colored" grade schools.
The African-American community used their elementary school gyms for special events, such as celebrating after a successful basketball or football game between colored teams or to hold meetings. At Topeka High School, everything except the classroom experience remained segregated.
At 11:30 a.m. each day, the lunch bell rang. The older students assisted their young schoolmates who did not walk home for lunch, across the street to Miss Laura’s Coffee Shop where they purchased hot chili, soda pop, and candy. They would then make their way back to the school auditorium to have lunch.
Monroe Grade School hosted annual 8th grade graduation ceremonies. Based on local school records, 80% of the students who passed through the "colored" grade schools advanced on to Topeka High School, which at the time was the largest high school facility in the county.
The Road to Brown During Reconstruction, public schools in the South enjoyed greater funding. African-American politicians were now seated in Congress. Republican governments in the South believed that education could be key to social progress. The Freedman’s Bureau, with the American Missionary Association, established schools for freedpeople, but racial hostility prevented the establishment of integrated schools. Freedpeople had a thirst for education, with black churches often providing it.
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909 by a diverse group of individuals who worked toward equal educational opportunities, including: writer Ida B. Wells, historian W.E.B. DuBois, suffragist Mary White Ovington, and sociologist Henry Moskowitz.
In this case, the plaintiffs’ children were not admitted to a brand-new school for whites, even though the school had classrooms that were not being used. The NAACP attempted to enroll children into the new junior high school, but admission was denied. The case was dismissed.
In this case, the NAACP presented evidence of how segregation harms children. The District Court ruled against the petitioners. The case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. All the petitioners suffered retaliations, and the federal judge who sided with the plaintiffs was forced from the state.
This is one of two cases that had identical issues: inequality in segregated schools and long distances from students’ homes. The state would not provide bussing because “colored” and white children could not ride together. The plaintiffs won on the grounds that separate but equal had been violated.
Barbara Johns staged a school walkout in protest of poor conditions, including inadequate and overcrowded facilities. The families requested help from their local NAACP. The plaintiffs won. As a result, the community’s schools were closed for 5 years in order to prevent integration.
Beginner Question:Who designed the doll experiment?Intermediate Question:Who were the participants in the doll test?Advanced Question:What did the doll test reveal about segregated education? Dr. Kenneth Clark interviewed 16 young African-American children from South Carolina. The results were similar to Dr. Mamie Clark’s findings. The Clarks concluded that prejudice, discrimination, and segregation caused black children to develop a sense of inferiority and self-hatred.
Mamie and Kenneth Clark’s paper, “Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children,” was used in the Brown decision. The study asked children to color drawings of boys and girls the same color as themselves. Many children with dark complexions colored the figures white or yellow.
Thurgood Marshall, Robert Carter, and Dr. Kenneth Clark tested the doll theory in South Carolina. Carter believed that Clark's findings would show how segregation damaged the personality development of black children. The Supreme Court specifically cited Clark's paper in the Brown decision.
The Clarks’ work guided the Brown decision: “To separate African-American children from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.”
Education in TopekaBy 1928, the Topeka School Board announced segregated education would be the standard from kindergarten through eighth grade. Construction on Monroe School started in 1926 and was completed in 1927. Four schools were built for "colored" students between 1926 and 1927: Monroe, McKinley, Washington and Buchannan. All would be up and running by the time the district officially separated the students based on race.
Beginner Question:How many schools were there in Topeka, Kansas in 1926?Intermediate Question:What is “permitted segregation”?Advanced Question:Was “separate but equal” successfully applied in Topeka, Kansas? At the height of “permitted segregation” in Kansas, this room was designed as an inviting place where children could feel protected and free from the restrains of a segregated community.
By 1897, many southern African Americans had moved to Kansas. Reverend Charles Sheldon established kindergarten classes for the children of “Exodust” homesteaders. In Topeka, black migrants settled mainly in 4 communities: Tennessee Town, Mud Town, Sand Town, and the Bottoms.
Black teachers educated black children in the first years of schooling. They committed every aspect of their master’s level training to prepare their students socially and academically. Teachers like Mamie Williams encouraged students to “be a miracle” and held high expectations for academic success.
Linda Brown attended Monroe grade school until the 6th grade and the time of the NAACP lawsuit that became known as Brown v. Board of Education. Her family resided in a racially-mixed community near the Sumner grade school where her father, Oliver Brown, tried to enroll her.
Contrary to the standard preparation for "colored" students throughout Topeka’s segregated schools, African-American children were educated in the trade occupations for eventual service work. However, students saw examples of black professionals such as lawyers, physicians, educators, and entrepreneurs, which they could emulate. Topeka’s black community pressed forward to establish a thriving independent economy with multiple residents enjoying the benefits of an upper-class existence.
Beginner Question:How far did Topeka students travel to get to a colored school?Intermediate Question:What subjects were taught at Monroe Grade School?Advanced Question:How were African American Teachers affected by the new integration law? Not everyone supported the NAACP’s challenge of the separate but equal law. Many highly qualified African-American teachers stood silent. Collectively, they did not believe the "colored" schools were substandard, and they had doubts that "colored" students would do as well in integrated schools. The 2nd floor of Monroe Grade School was home to the 5th through 8th grades. This floor housed a domestic science class where girls learned home economics. At later times, this floor had as a library, a music room, and a teacher’s lunchroom.
The NAACP president represented 13 families in the case against the Topeka School District. Dr. Louisa Pinkham Holt, a witness for the NAACP, said that the enforcement of legal separation was a damaging policy because it was interpreted by all as denoting that black people are inferior.
In June 1951, attorneys and members of the NAACP’s legal team went to the U.S. District Court demanding integration of Topeka’s elementary schools. By August 1952, a panel ruled for the Board of Education. The case’s dismissal allowed Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka to go to the Supreme Court.
The Brown DecisionThe Supreme Court announced its unanimous decision on Brown v. Board of Education on May 17, 1954, stating that school segregation violated the Equal Protection and Due Process clauses of the 14th Amendment. In 1955, the Court ordered desegregation “with all deliberate speed,” a mandated enforcement designed for southern compliance. This gallery contains historic information about the impact of the Brown decision and the emergence of a social movement with significant government policy changes.
Beginner Question:How was the integration law enforced nationwide?Intermediate Question:What was the overall reaction to the verdict?Advanced Question:How do schools reflect the attitudes and practices of society, including racial segregation? Attorneys for the NAACP and the Legal Defense and Educational Fund systematically attacked the doctrine of “Separate but Equal,” starting with higher level education. The Court considered legal precedents, findings on segregation’s negative effects, and the inferiority of schools black children attended.
In 1959, all schools in Prince Edward County were closed for five years to avoid integration following the Supreme Court's decision. The county’s white citizens formed a private, all-white academy to educate their children. African-American students did not receive public education until 1963.
Segregation is defined as “separation, for special treatment, of individuals from a larger group.” In United States’ history, the term refers to the separation of individuals based on race. It originated as a result of a law passed in Louisiana in 1890 that called for “equal but separate” accommodations on railroads for “whites” and “colored.” A group decided to test the constitutionality of the Separate Car Law. The resulting case went to the Supreme Court and is known as Plessy v. Ferguson.
Beginner Question:Why were schools in the United States segregated? Intermediate Question:What was Plessy v. Ferguson, and how did this law affect American society? Advanced Question:What kind of equality did the Separate but Equal law produce? The Brown v. Board decision dealt a major blow to state-sanctioned discrimination. However, it did not guarantee nationwide acceptance of integration. By 1964, the NAACP's focus was transformed into a legal battle to eliminate all traces of institutionalized racism from American life.
The Legacy of Brown In 2011, Georgia Rep. John Lewis was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor. He was moved to tears when President Obama informed him of his award. In the 1960s, Lewis was a chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, launching Freedom Rides throughout the South. In 1963, Lewis stood with Martin Luther King, Jr. at the Lincoln Memorial. He is the last surviving keynote speaker from that historic day. Lewis was elected to Congress in 1986.
Since the beginning of time, the arts have reflected current events. This sculpture by Aaron Bell connects current racial discrimination to historical roots of black oppression. The base quotes Martin Luther King, Jr.: "Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about the things that matter."
This map shows the percentage of U.S. public high school students who graduated on time for the 2016–17 school year, measured by the adjusted cohort graduation rate (ACGR). It includes public schools in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, except for the Bureau of Indian Education schools.
This mural, Legacy & Vision, was completed in August 2018. The artwork evolved from 21 participants in the annual Living the Dream Inc., Student Art Competition. Each student created artwork that reflects how the Brown decision impacts them personally, along with their visions for the future.
AnswersBefore the civil war, citizens of the United States were divided by skin color and wealth. People of color were enslaved and forced to work on plantations owned by white landowners. In 1896 a constitutional ruling mandated the separation of blacks and whites in public places, including schools. Return to Tour In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled against Plessy in Plessy v. Ferguson. This action was the result of a test of Louisiana’s Separate Car Law of 1890, where a light-skinned man named Homer Plessy sat in a white car on a train. Plessy’s arrest and the decision allowed for segregation in public places
Return to Tour The law produced a total regression from constitutional laws established by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. Segregation was enforced in all areas of life. The courts decided that segregation did not violate the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment if the races enjoyed equal treatment.
Return to Tour Jim Crow was a character created by a white minstrel show performer of the 1800s who painted his face black to depict an enslaved person on the plantation. His act degraded and mocked the intelligence of black people to entertain white audiences.
Return to Tour Over time, the term Jim Crow became associated with written and unwritten laws that disenfranchised and restricted access of movement and individual freedoms of people of color. It was used to give legitimacy to the legal mistreatment of African Americans due to their alleged inadequacy.
Return to Tour The Civil Rights Act of 1866 declared that all persons born in this country regardless of previous condition of slavery were citizens, with the exception of American Indians. But these laws were never enforced. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 had a positive impact, but challenges continue today.
Return to Tour The experiment was designed by Dr. Kenneth Clark, assistant professor at City College of New York. Clark’s groundbreaking research influenced the outcome of Brown v. Board. His wife, Dr. Mamie Clark, also a psychologist, partnered in this research experiment.
Return to Tour The study surveyed children who attended segregated schools. Dr. Mamie Clark asked the children questions about black and white dolls, including which they would rather play with. She found that black children overwhelmingly responded positively to the white dolls and negatively to the black dolls.
Return to Tour The doll test showed the larger social effects of segregation on all children, further legitimizing the ramifications of segregation. The NAACP presented the strategic argument of the psychological damage segregation inflicts on children’s minds, creating feelings of inferiority and superiority.
Return to Tour By 1926, the Topeka School district adapted a dual school system with 22 schools. Four grade schools existed for African-American students and 18 grade schools existed for white students.
Return to Tour Under the Plessy v. Ferguson law, Kansas practiced “permitted segregation.” This structure focused on first class cities with populations of 15,000 residents. In rural districts, segregation was based on population as small communities accepted both white and black students within the same schools.
Return to Tour The Topeka School District considered their approach to educating "colored" children to be progressive. They obtained all the necessary resources, including constructing 4 “colored” schools at considerable cost, demonstrating their efforts in upholding the “separate but equal” law of 1896.
Return to Tour By 1927, most students walked to school from the 4 black communities of the Bottoms, Mud Town, Sand Town, and Tennessee Town. Forty-five students traveled 30 minutes by city bus, others walked about 15 minutes, and Linda Brown, the student who had the longest commute traveled 45 minutes one way.
Return to Tour By the end of 1923, seven teachers and Principal Fred Roundtree taught an average of 250 students in grades kindergarten through 8 at Monroe Grade School. Students studied arithmetic, reading, language, penmanship, spelling, U.S. History, and the geography of Kansas and the Midwest.
Return to Tour The Brown decision had an unintended consequence, which is still felt today. Tens of thousands of experienced, highly credentialed black educators lost their jobs as white superintendents began to integrate schools but resisted putting them in positions of authority over white teachers or students.
Return to Tour President Dwight Eisenhower used his authority to promote racial equality in those venues specifically under national control. He ordered the desegregation of military bases, public schools, and public accommodations. He took decisive action to enforce court rulings eliminating racial segregation.
Return to Tour In opposition to the decision, white citizens' councils formally organized throughout the South to preserve segregation and defend segregated schools. By 1957, southern states had enacted 126 new pieces of legislation created to maintain segregation, and many passed anti-NAACP laws.
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Last updated: April 13, 2022
The doll you can see in this photo, along with a white doll, were given as part of a research experiment by Dr. Kenneth Clark to one of his students in New York City while he was serving as a teacher at the City College University. The white doll did not survive. The black doll, although discolored by sunlight, remains as an important artifact of the Brown v. Board of Education case. It represents the results of an experiment that demonstrated that lower self-esteem and self-hatred could be linked to racial segregation.