Civil War Weapons in the Shenandoah Valley

M1855 with “hump” for Maynard priming system

NPS Photo

The Shenandoah Valley witnessed the use of a wide variety of weapons during the Civil War. An estimated 325 combat actions occurred in the Valley between 1861-1865, everything from relatively large, pivotal battles like Third Winchester and Cedar Creek, to small cavalry firefights involving only a few soldiers. In each of those battles, different models and variations of weapons were used, particularly by Confederates who, because of inconsistent resupply systems, were often forced to capture Federal guns and ammunition.

The weapons described in this essay were employed by soldiers fighting in the Shenandoah Valley, based on written and archaeological evidence. Although not all weapons used in the Valley are explained here, those featured were among the most popular.

Infantry Shoulder Arms

M1861 Springfield Rifle Musket

Well-balanced and lacking the severe “kick” of other muskets of the Civil War era, the M1861 Springfield became the most popular infantry shoulder arm of the war. With its rifled barrel and in the right hands, the M1861 could be fired three times per minute with a deadly effective range over 400 yards. A steel socket bayonet could be attached to the barrel.

Length: 55.8 inches (rifled barrel 40 in.)
Weight: 8.9 lbs.
Caliber: .58 Minie ball paper cartridge
Effective Range: 400-500 yards
Muzzle-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action
Three-banded barrel with walnut stock
Forward sight and adjustable rear sight

1853 Enfield Pattern Rifle Musket

Produced in England, the 1853 Enfield Pattern Rifle Musket was the most-used shoulder weapon by Confederate soldiers. Approximately 900,000 Enfields were imported, mostly by the Confederacy, but many were captured or destroyed by the Federal blockade. Solid and durable, this rifle was deadly accurate to 500 yards and could be equipped with a steel socket bayonet.
Length: 55 inches (rifled barrel 39 in.)
Weight: 9.5 lbs.
Caliber: .577 Minie ball paper cartridge
Effective Range: 400-500 yards
Muzzle-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action
Three-banded barrel with walnut stock
Forward sight and large, adjustable rear sight, also used by many Federal troops

M1855 Springfield Rifle Musket

The first U.S. firearm rifled for the expanding Minie ball, the M1855 Springfield was equipped with the Maynard tape primer system which fed priming compound, via a roll of paper tape housed in a distinctive “hump” under the hammer, to the gun’s percussion cone. The system was often ineffective, and most soldiers manually placed a percussion cap on the cone. The M1855 had a deadly range of approximately 400 yards and could accommodate a steel socket bayonet. Captured M1855’s became models for the Confederate copies called Richmond Rifles.

Length: 56 inches (rifled barrel 40 in.)
Weight: 9.25 lbs.
Caliber: .58 Minie ball paper cartridge
Effective Range: 400-500 yards
Muzzle-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action
Three-banded barrel with walnut stock
Forward sight and adjustable rear sightM1855 with “hump” for Maynard priming system
Maynard tape priming system

1841 Mississippi Rifle

Originally called the M1841 United States Rifle, this rifle became known as the “Mississippi” Rifle during the Mexican War when it was used by Mississippi volunteers. Many Mississippi rifles were seized by Confederate forces early in the Civil War while other holdovers from the Mexican War were brought from home by soldiers. The Louisiana Tigers fired Mississippi rifles throughout the war, including many battles in the Shenandoah Valley.

Length: 49 inches (rifled barrel 33 in.)
Weight: 9.3 lbs.
Caliber: upgraded to .58 Minie ball paper cartridge
Effective Range: 400 yards
Muzzle-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action
One-banded barrel with walnut stock
Forward sight, mount for sword bayonet, brass patch and ammo box on buttstock

Richmond Rifle

Nearly a direct copy of the M1855 Springfield Rifle Musket, the Richmond Rifle’s machinery and initial materiel used to build it were seized in Harpers Ferry by Confederates in 1861. The Richmond Armory and other southern factories built over 30,000 Richmond rifles during the Civil War, and the rifles became the second most-used shoulder arm by Confederates behind the 1853 Enfield. Although the M1855’s lock plate mold with the “hump” was used for the Richmond Rifle, the Maynard tape primer system itself was never produced in the South.

Length: 49, 52, 55 inches (rifled barrel 33, 36, 39 in.)
Weight: 9 lbs. on average, depending on barrel length
Caliber: .45 cylindrical or hexagonal lead bullets
Effective Range: 1,000 yards in the hands of a good marksman
Muzzle-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action
Three-banded with walnut stock
Forward and rear sights, also accommodated telescopic sights (Davison)
Bullet produced “whistling” sound while airborne

Whitworth Rifle

Imported from England by the Confederacy, Whitworth rifles were issued only to the best marksmen in the Confederate Army. Excellent weapons for sharpshooters, only a small number of Whitworths made it through the Federal blockade. Good marksmen with Whitworth rifles were often sent to vantage points to snipe Federal officers and artillery crews. The rifle had an effective range of approximately 1,000 yards but produced a sharp “kick” when fired.

Length: 49, 52, 55 inches (rifled barrel 33, 36, 39 in.)
Weight: 9 lbs. on average, depending on barrel length
Caliber: .45 cylindrical or hexagonal lead bullets
Effective Range: 1,000 yards in the hands of a good marksman
Muzzle-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action
Three-banded with walnut stock
Forward and rear sights, also accommodated telescopic sights (Davison)
Bullet produced “whistling” sound while airborne

Cavalry Shoulder Arms

M1859 Sharps Carbine (and Rifle)

The most-used cavalry shoulder arm of the Civil War, the 1859 Sharps Carbine was a reliable and durable breechloader. Over 90,000 Sharps carbines, and a longer infantry version, were produced for Federal forces and fired during virtually every combat action in the Shenandoah Valley. Rifled barrels gave the guns an effective range of 400-500 yards. Captured Sharps carbines were copied by the Confederacy to create the Robinson Carbine.

Length: 38 inches (rifled barrel 21 in.)
Weight: 8 lbs.
Caliber: .52 paper cartridge (later metal)
Effective Range: 300 yards
Lever action (trigger guard), breech-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action with falling block, tape primer for percussion
One-banded with walnut stock (3-banded infantry version)
Forward and rear sights, best identifying feature is rectangular block on receiver

Spencer Carbine

The second most-used cavalry shoulder arm of the Civil War, the Spencer carbine tipped the balance of firepower in the Federals’ direction late in the conflict, including in the Shenandoah Valley. Over 90,000 Spencer carbines were built, mostly for Federal cavalry units. The Spencer was a repeating rifle that held seven, .52 caliber rimfire cartridges in a magazine in the buttstock.

Length: 39 inches (rifled barrel 22 in.)
Weight: 8.2 lbs.
Caliber: .52 bullet, .56 rimfire shell casing
Effective Range: 300 yards
Lever action (trigger guard), magazine fed, seven-shot; could fire 20 rounds per minute
One-banded with walnut stock
Forward and rear sights
Large hump on bottom of receiver where trigger guard is cocked

Burnside Carbine

Featuring a unique, easily recognizable trigger guard, this cavalry carbine was designed by future Federal General Ambrose E. Burnside. Including all five variants, the Burnside became the third most-used carbine by Federal forces during the Civil War. Confederates captured Burnsides but could never find or replicate enough of the odd, ice cream cone-shaped .54 caliber cartridges.

Length: 39.5 inches (rifled barrel 21 in.)
Weight: 7 lbs.
Caliber: .54 cone-shaped metal cartridge
Effective range: 300 yards
Lever action (trigger guard), breech-loaded, single-shot, tape primer for percussion
One-banded with walnut stock
Forward and rear sights
Small inner trigger guard was a “catch” used to open breech for loading

Robinson Carbine

With limited industrial capability and resources to build weapons, the Confederacy depended on soldiers to capture Federal guns that could be copied. Despite shortages, the Robinson Arms Manufactory in Richmond, Virginia, built nearly 5,000 copies of the Federal M1859 Sharps Carbine during the war. Inferior to the Sharps, Robinson carbines filled a critical need for Confederate cavalry weapons and saw plenty of action in the Shenandoah Valley.

Length: 38 inches (rifled barrel 21 in.)
Weight: 8 lbs.
Caliber: .52 paper cartridge
Effective Range: 300 yards
Lever action (trigger guard), breech-loaded, single-shot
Percussion cap action with falling block
One-banded with walnut stock
Forward and rear sights, like Sharps has pronounced rectangular block on receiver

M1860 Henry Rifle

Although not specifically meant to be a cavalry weapon, most of the approximately 14,000 Henry rifles produced between 1860-1866 found their way to horse soldiers. A revolutionary gun with a 15-round tubular magazine under the barrel, the Henry became the forerunner of the later Winchester repeating rifles. Confederate guerrilla leader Col. John S. Mosby called the Henry “that d_____d Yankee rifle that can be loaded on Sunday and fired all week.”

Length: 43.8 inches (rifled barrel 24 in.)
Weight: 9.6 lbs.
Caliber: .44 copper or brass rimfire cartridge
Effective range: 100 yards
Lever action, magazine-fed, 16-shot
No forward stock, walnut buttstock
Forward and rear sights
Octagonal barrel, brass receiver
Barrel became too hot to handle with no stock; Confederates had trouble finding .44 caliber ammunition

Joslyn Carbine (and Rifle)

By the 1862 models and continuing through the Civil War, the Joslyn carbines and rifles fired .52 or .54 rimfire cartridges, abandoning paper cartridges and percussion caps. Opening the breech to load was different from other weapons; a soldier lifted a lever and swung it to the left. Only approximately 11,000 Joslyns reached the Federal army and were often later replaced by repeating Spencer carbines.

Length: 38 inches (rifled barrel 22 in.)
Weight: 8.3 lbs. (carbine)
Caliber: .52 or proprietary .54 metal rimfire cartridge
Effective Range: 300 yards
Lever action, breech-loaded, single-shot
Firing pin action replaced percussion cap
One-banded with walnut stock (rifle version 3-banded)
Forward and rear sights
Pictured gun is the longer rifle version

Smith Carbine

Designed specifically for the Federal cavalry, the Smith Carbine became the fourth most-used carbine in the Civil War. Over 30,000 Smiths were purchased by the U.S. Government. Soldiers loaded the Smith Carbine by pushing a “plunger” inside the trigger guard to open the breech, exposing the chamber. The .50 caliber cartridge casings were initially rubber, then metallic foil.

Length: 39.5 inches (rifled barrel 22 in.)
Weight: 7.5 lbs.
Caliber: .50 cartridge with rubber or metallic case
Effective Range: 300 yards
Percussion cap action, breech-loaded, single-shot
One-banded with walnut stock
Forward and rear sights, octagonal barrel
Two versions: “cavalry” with sling bar on left, “artillery” with sling swivels on stock

Revolvers

M1851 Colt Navy Revolver

Probably the most-used handgun of the Civil War, the 1851 Colt Navy revolver was favored by many cavalrymen for its relatively light weight and easy loading. The Colt Arms Company produced over 200,000 1851’s for Federal forces, but many were captured and copied by the Confederates; these copies included the Griswold & Gunnison and Leech & Rigdon revolvers.

Length: 13 inches (barrel 7.5 in.)Weight: 2.6 lbs.Caliber: .36 paper cartridgeEffective Range: 75 yardsPercussion cap action, six-round cylinderWalnut handgrip, single-actionLoading lever (rammer) under barrelForward sight, octagonal barrelNicknamed “Navy” Colt because of naval scenes engraved on some cylinders

M1860 Colt Army Revolver

At least the second most-used pistol of the war, the 1860 Colt Army revolver became a favorite of officers and cavalrymen on both sides who wanted the increased killing power of a .44 caliber weapon. The Colt Arms Company sold nearly 130,000 of these pistols to the United States, most going to cavalrymen. Confederates captured many and they became the preferred gun of Confederate guerrilla leader Col. John S. Mosby and his partisan rangers.

Length: 14 inches (barrel 7.5 or 8 in.)
Weight: 2.7 lbs.
Caliber: .44 paper cartridge
Effective Range: 75 yards
Percussion cap action, six-round cylinder
Walnut handgrip, ball or conical bullet
Loading lever (rammer) under barrel
Forward sight, round barrel, single-action
No scenes on cylinder, all .44 calibers became “Army” models; .36 caliber became “Navy”

Remington Army Revolver

A solid framed single-action pistol, the Remington Army Revolver was the third most-used handgun during the Civil War. Somewhat cheaper than Colt revolvers, many “New Model” Remingtons were purchased by the United States later in the war. Because they had steel top frames over the cylinder, they were more durable than the open-topped Colts. Confederate attempts to copy captured Remington revolvers failed.

Length: 13.8 inches (barrel 8 in.)
Weight: 2.9 lbs.
Caliber: .44 paper cartridge
Effective Range: 75 yards
Percussion cap action, six-round cylinder
Walnut handgrip, ball or conical bullet
Loading lever (rammer) under barrel
Forward sight and sighting groove along top strap over the cylinder
Octagonal barrel
.36 caliber “Navy” version was somewhat shorter and lighter

Griswold & Gunnison Revolver

Desperate for weapons and short on resources, the Confederacy often copied captured Federal guns. The Griswold & Gunnison Revolver was an almost direct copy of the United States’ 1851 Colt Navy Revolver. Produced from 1862 to 1864 in Griswoldville, Georgia, Griswold & Gunnison revolvers had distinctive brass frames and round, twisted iron barrels, giving them a slightly different look from the 1851 Colt Navy.

Length: 13 inches (barrel 7.5 inches)
Weight: 2.6 lbs.
Caliber: .36 paper cartridge
Effective Range: 75 yards
Percussion cap action, six-round cylinder
Walnut handgrip, single action
Loading lever (rammer) under barrel
Forward sight, round barrel
Most common Confederate revolver copy

Kerr Patent Revolver

Imported from England by both the United States and Confederate armies, the Kerr Patent Revolver became a particular favorite of Confederate cavalrymen. The Kerr was small, durable, and easy to use, making it effective in close combat. Although approximately 11,000 Kerr revolvers were sold to the Confederates, many were lost, apparently intercepted by the Federal naval blockade.

Length: 12.2 inches (barrel 5 inches)
Weight: 2.4 lbs.
Caliber: mostly .44 paper cartridge
Effective Range: 50 yards
Percussion cap action, five-round cylinder
Wooden handgrip, most were single- action
Small loading lever (rammer) under barrel
Forward sight, octagonal barrel
Side-mounted hammer on right

LeMat Revolver

One of the most curious and intriguing weapons of the Civil War was the LeMat pistol. Designed for the Confederacy by Frenchman Jean LeMat, the gun featured a nine-shot cylinder and a 20-gauge smoothbore shotgun barrel underneath the main barrel. Of the 2,900 LeMats produced in Europe, only an estimated 1,500 passed through the Federal blockade to the Confederates. Several Confederate generals including J.E.B. Stuart, Pierre G.T. Beauregard, and possibly Stonewall Jackson owned LeMats.

Length: 13.2 inches (barrel 6.7 in.)
Weight: 4.1 lbs.
Caliber: .42 paper cartridge, .63 shotgun barrel
Effective Range: 50 yards
Percussion cap action, nine-round cylinder
Wooden handgrip, single-action
Loading lever (rammer) to left of barrel
Forward sight, rear sighting notch
Octagonal barrel
.42 caliber ammunition was hard to find, soldiers often had to cast own bullets

Artillery

Napoleon Gun

Probably the most-used artillery type of the Civil War, the 12-pound “Napoleon” gained its nickname from its similarities to cannons of the Napoleonic Wars era. Called “12-pounders” because they typically fired 12-pound ammunition, Napoleons had bronze, smoothbore barrels that fired solid shot, shell, and canister. Napoleons were embraced by both the Federal and Confederate armies for their durability, versatility, and effectiveness in all artillery situations.

Length: Barrel 5.5 feet
Weight: 2,400 lbs. (barrel 1,220 lbs.)
Caliber: 4.62-inch bore
Effective Range: 1,700 yards (1 mile)
Friction primer and lanyard action
Horse-drawn, wooden carriage
Normally 7 or 8-man crew, fired 3-4 rounds per minute
Deployed in batteries of 6 (Federal) or 4 (Confederate)
Confederate copies often did not have a “swell” near muzzle

3-inch Ordnance Rifle

Built from cylindrical blocks of wrought iron wrapped in hot layers of wrought iron bars, then welded together and bored out, the 3-inch Ordnance Rifle became the most popular cannon of the Civil War. Light, durable, accurate, and safe from bursting, the gun became a particular favorite of horse artillery batteries. The gun’s range of over two miles could not be matched. Confederate attempts to copy captured 3-inch Ordnance Rifles were mostly unsuccessful.

Length: Barrel 5.8 feet
Weight: 2,000 lbs. (barrel 800 lbs.)
Caliber: 3 inches
Effective Range: 1800 yds (range 4,000 yds)
Friction primer and lanyard action
Horse drawn, wooden carriage
Normally 7 or 8-man crew, fired 2-3
rounds per minute
Deployed in batteries of 6 (Federal) or 4 (Confederate), or mixed
Rifled barrel made 3-inch gun great with shells like Schenkl, not so with canister

10-pound Parrott Rifle

Although not quite as popular as the Napoleon or 3-inch Ordnance Rifle, the 10-pounder Parrott Rifle was bought in quantity by both the United States and Confederate armies. Easy to load and fire, Parrott Rifle barrels were built of cast iron. Because of potential bursting of the barrel near the breech, however, the Parrotts were reinforced with thick, pronounced wrought iron sleeves.

Length: Barrel 6.1 feet
Weight: 2,200 lbs. (barrel 890 lbs.)
Caliber: 2.9 inches, 3.0 inches (1863)
Effective Range: 1800 yds (range 2,500 yds)
Friction primer and lanyard action
Horse drawn, wooden carriage
Normally 7 or 8-man crew, fired 2-3 rounds per minute
Deployed in batteries of 6 (Federal) or 4 (Confederate), or mixed
Better firing shell (like Parrott) than canister
Several variations: 10-pound, 20-pound, 30-pound, 60-pound, 200-pound, etc.

Blakely Rifled Gun (12-pound)

A Confederate import from England, the 12-pounder Blakely Rifled Gun found its way into several battles in the Shenandoah Valley. Most Blakely rifles were muzzleloaders that featured steel or cast-iron barrels with wrought iron bands to reinforce the rear of the barrel near the breech. The Blakely was most effective firing shot and shell projectiles, not so effective with canister.

Length: Barrel 4.9 feet
Weight: 2,000 lbs. (800 lbs.)
Caliber: 3.5 inch (12-pounder)
Effective Range: 1,850 yds. (1.1 miles)
Friction Primer and lanyard action
Horse drawn, wooden carriage
Seven or eight-man crew, fired 2-3 rounds per minute
Deployed in batteries of four, or mixed with other gun types
Many variations: 6-pound, 12-pound, 20-pound, 100-pound, 150-pound, etc.

Edged Weapons

M1850 Staff & Field Officers’ Sword

Of limited value as weapons, M1850 Staff & Field Officers’ Swords were authorized for Federal field grade officers including majors, lieutenant colonels, colonels, and generals. The M1850 Foot Officers’ Sword was authorized for lieutenants and captains. Although potentially dangerous, these swords were more symbolic of rank rather than useful in combat.

Length: Blade 32 inches (total 38 in.)
Width of blade: 1.125 inches
Weight: 2.2 lbs.
Steel blade: blunt top edge, sharpened lower edge
Brass handguard with grill and one bar
Wooden handgrip wrapped in leather and copper wire
Blood grooves (fullers) on both sides of blade
Scabbards normally steel, but some wood or iron
Confederate copies were generally inferior

M1840 Cavalry Saber

A holdover from the Mexican War, the M1840 Cavalry Saber was carried by both officers and enlisted cavalry soldiers, Federal and Confederate. With its curved steel blade, the M1840 Cavalry Saber was designed for slashing and hacking in close combat. Over 23,000 of these sabers were produced, but they were gradually replaced during the war by the lighter and less awkward M1860 Cavalry Saber. Nicknamed “Old Wrist Breaker” because of its weight.

Length: Blade 35 inches (total 41 in.)
Width of blade: 1.25 inches
Weight: 2.8 lbs.
Steel blade: blunt top edge, sharpened lower edge; scabbards normally steel, wood, or iron
Brass handguard with three bars
Wooden handgrip wrapped in leather and copper wire
Blood grooves (fullers) on both sides of blade
Captured M1840’s and copies were the most-used Confederate sabers

M1860 Cavalry Saber

The most-used saber of the Civil War, the M1860 Cavalry Saber replaced the heavier M1840. Approximately 300,000 M1860’s were produced for the Federal cavalry, but Confederates captured many and produced copies, usually of inferior quality. Although pistols became the preferred weapons of most cavalrymen, the M1860 Cavalry Saber saw wide use throughout the war, usually for slashing and chopping downward in close combat.

Length: Blade 35 inches (total 41 in.)
Width of blade: 1 inch
Weight: 2.4 lbs.
Steel blade: blunt top edge, sharpened lower edge; scabbards normally steel
Brass handguard with three bars
Wooden handgrip wrapped in leather and copper wire
Blood grooves (fullers) on both sides of blade
Both officers and enlisted horsemen used the M1860, including Jeb Stuart and George A. Custer

Bayonets

Virtually every infantryman, Federal and Confederate, carried a bayonet throughout the war. Most were triangular socket bayonets that could be easily attached to musket muzzles. Bayonets were steel spikes averaging approximately 18 inches long and tapering to a sharp point. Soldiers usually carried their bayonet in a leather scabbard. Although they were intimidating and could create nasty wounds, bayonets caused fewer than 1% of Civil War casualties.

Length: 18 inches, 21 in. with socket (average)
Weight: 1 pound (average for many types)
Steel blade: usually 3-sided with a sharp point
Socket fit the end of a musket barrel
Blood grooves on each side
Most were M1855 socket bayonets, but there were many other bayonet types
Confederate bayonets were often iron with steel tips, many were imported
Saw limited combat, although used at Gettysburg and Cedar Creek
Used most often for cooking over a fire, digging, mounting a candle in the socket end

Ammunition

Buck and Ball

Especially among Confederate soldiers using smoothbore, muzzleloading muskets early in the war, buck and ball ammunition was popular. A buck and ball round usually consisted of a paper cartridge filled with black powder, a round lead ball, and three to six pellets of buckshot. Although the effective range of a buck and ball round was only 200 yards, the scattering, shotgun effect could be brutal for victims in close combat.

Bullet: Lead balls and buckshot
Round: Paper cartridge with black powder, a lead ball, and buckshot
Effective Range: 200 yards
Most effective with smoothbore muskets, not so with rifles
Deadly in close combat against
As the war progressed, the increase in rifles lessened the use of buck and ball

Minie Ball

Not actually a “ball,” the Minie Ball was a hollow-based, conical lead bullet produced for rifled muskets. Designed by Frenchman Claude Minie, the term does not mean small. The speed and accuracy of rifled muskets was greatly improved because of the Minie Ball’s grooves interacting with the rifling in a musket’s barrel. Upon the weapon’s firing, the Minie Ball’s hollow base expanded and gripped the gun’s rifling.

Length: 1.1 inches (average)
Weight: 1.14 ounces (average)
Bullet: soft, conical lead with hollow base and grooves
Round: paper cartridge with black powder and Minie ball
Caliber: .58, used in all .58 caliber rifles, Federal and Confederate (actually, .575 to allow space for easy loading and powder buildup in barrel)
Effective range: up to 900 yards with a skilled marksman
Inflicted gruesome wounds, shattering bones, cutting through organs

Schenkl Artillery Rifle Shell

No fewer than seventy different types of projectiles were fired by artillery pieces during the Civil War. Included were solid shot, shell and case shot that burst into fragments, canister that produced a shotgun effect, and others. Rifled guns usually fired elongated projectiles that were named after their inventor. Examples are Schenkel, Parrott, Hotchkiss, Dyer, and Read projectiles. The various Schenkl rounds were often fired in the Shenandoah Valley battles.

Length: 9.2 inches (average)
Weight: 8 lbs. (average)
Caliber: 3 inches (ideal for 3-inch Ordnance and Parrott
Rifles). Also, 3.67 inch and Confederate variants
Diameter: 2.92 inches
Construction: usually shell or case shot
Sabot: usually papier mache, Confederate copies normally had wooden sabots
Fusing: usually brass (Confederate often copper), time or percussion
Over 125,000 3-inch caliber Schenkl rounds were purchased for Union forces
Raised ribs on cone under sabot are distinctive for Schenkl shells
Sabots stabilized the shell in the cannon’s barrel.
When the weapon was fired, gases caused the sabot to expand into the rifling grooves, increasing the projectile’s range and accuracy.