Archaic Period - 3,200 to 11,450 Years Ago

Tool Shapers

Archeologists dubbed those who lived in the Archaic period as Tool Shapers, these individuals were efficient and diversified in their everyday life. Rather than relying on hunting large games as their main source of nourishment, they focused more on gathering vegetable foods, fishing, and hunting and trapping small woodland animals. They made elaborate tools such as bone fishhooks, fire-starting drills, and spear-throwers.

Components of an Archaic atlatl found at Russell Cave (top row), a recreation of an atlatl (2nd row), and an illustration of an atlatl loaded with a spear (3rd row).

NPS Photo, NGS (atlatl tip)

With the population of large Ice Age mammals in decline, the Archaic people catered their hunting methods toward the smaller, more agile woodland animals. Based on the amount of deer bones found inside of Russell Cave, deer was by far the most preferred game animal. To match the speed of their faster prey, the band of hunters began hurling their spears using a specialized stick that had a hook at one end. This invention would later be known as the “atlatl” (aht-la-tul or ahtul-ahtul), an Aztec word for “spear-thrower”. Per user, the atlatl could be further modified with a counterweight, inserted handle and tip, and ornaments. The customized handle and tip as well as the ornaments were mainly for aesthetic and comfort that offers little to no improvement to the performance of the atlatl. However, the counterweight, or also known as the bannerstone, added additional weight to the atlatl and enhances the velocity and accuracy of the spears.

Archeologists were also puzzled by the atlatl point due to its in-between size. Not big enough to be a spear point and not small enough to be an arrowhead.

NPS Photo

Throughout time, various methods of harnessing fire were developed by the prehistoric people, such as "stealing" it from natural causes (wildfires) or striking pieces of flints together to create a spark. However, such methods were unreliable and hard to execute. At some point in the Archaic period, people began starting fire with friction by using their hands to spin a wooden spindle on a wooden base until an ember is formed. Although reliable, the “hand-drill” was labor intensive and hard to master. The Archaic people would go on to perfect the spindle and base method by adding two more components, a bow and a handle. By winding the string of the bow around the spindle and placing a handle on top, users were able to rotate the spindle continuously by moving the bow back and forth, resulting in a quicker ember with minimal effort. These “bow-drills” were also used for drilling holes in materials such as wood, bones, antlers, and even rocks by attaching a stone drill bit at the tip of the spindle.

Clear evidence of the inhabitants controlling and using an open fire came in the form of smoke remnants found on the ceiling of Russell cave.

NPS Photo

Softer than stones and harder than wood, the resilience and malleability of bone made it especially useful to the Archaic people. Fresh bone can be broken, split, and/or splintered into smaller pieces and further modified to create the desired tool. Numerous bone artifacts, mostly made from deer bones, were recovered from Russell Cave. Needles and awls were crafted by breaking the ulnae (forelegs) and ribs on an anvil with a large hammerstone and were used for sewing hides. Fishhooks were made using several methods, depending on the type of bone available. Toe bones were cut and split lengthwise, then grinded until the exterior surface of the bone was removed leaving only the hook-shaped ridge of bone inside. Oval-shaped pieces of a split rib were grooved and grinded to the preferred thickness. Flatter pieces were drilled at the center and grinded from the outside until the hook is exposed. Although unpopular, two splinters can also be bound together at an angle to form a simple fishhook.

With the Tennessee River close by and a running stream in front of the cave, undoubtably the occupants fished extensively. Bone awls and needles make up the majority of bone tools found at Russell Cave because of their simple construction.

NPS Photo

The Archaic people in the Southeast were successful in adapting to the warming weather and the declining megafauna population by maximizing the usage of their environment, developing more effective hunting and gathering techniques, as well as crafting an abundance of practical tools. This increasingly efficient way of living allowed the inhabitants time for other pursuits. Personal adornment objects such as beads and necklaces were made from bird bones, perforated canine teeth from various animals, and polished stones.