NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Visual Preferences of Travelers Along the Blue Ridge Parkway

Gary D. Hampe
University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming

An individual's scenic preferences are influenced by many things. His culture and society make up just one important part. As is known from previous research on scenic preferences and the more general study of aesthetics, individuals respond simultaneously to the environment around them on several levels (Zube et al., 1975). We know that color, complexity, type of scene, and variety can have an impact on a person physically, emotionally, intellectually, and socially. The relationships between the scenic preferences of visitors and their social background characteristics are examined in this chapter.

The Vista Indices

Five major vistas were found to be typical of the scenes along the Blue Ridge Parkway. These five themes, developed and discussed in depth by Hammitt in Chapter 2, were obtained from factor analyses of the preferences of respondents. Respondents were contacted at three sampling sites along the Blue Ridge Parkway, referred to as the Northern, Middle, and Southern sections.

The number of respondents for each section was as follows: Northern, 241; Middle, 245; Southern, 205. The total sample size was 691.

A total of 96 photographs was used, but only 32 scenes were shown to the respondents in each section. The respondents rated each scene on a scale from one (liked not at all) to five (liked very much). Respondents in each section rated a different set of 32 scenes. The ratings were then factor analyzed within each section, as described in Chapter 2. This resulted in the emergence of five scenic vista types:

1. A Water Vista
2. An Open Multi-Ridged Vista
3. A Developed Vista
4. A One-Ridged Vista
5. An Unmaintained Vista

Indices for each of these vistas were constructed by adding the scores of those scenes that were related to one another on a given factor. (See Hammitt, Chapter 2 for further statistical explanations of the five vistas and rankings of scenes.)

Within each section—Northern, Middle, and Southern—the index for each vista was constructed by adding the rankings given to each picture that had loaded highly on a particular factor: i.e., Open, Unmaintained, One-Ridged, Developed, and Water. The vistas preferred by the respondents from most to least were Water, Open (multi-ridged), Developed (Farm Valley), One-Ridged, and Unmaintained.

The data were analyzed by combining the vistas from the different sections where applicable. Photographs of the Open and Unmaintained Vistas were used in the questionnaires in all three sections of the parkway. One-Ridged Vistas were used in the Northern and Middle sections. Developed Vistas (Farm Valley) were used in Northern and Southern sections, and the Water Vista was measured in the Middle and Southern sections. All the results were checked separately within each of the section subsamples and compared with the results of the total sample. In no case did the relationships change direction. Consistent relationships were found between the dependent variables—the vistas— and the independent variables—the respondents' social background characteristics.

Sociocultural Characteristics of Blue Ridge Parkway Users

The six social background variables obtained were the respondent's age, sex, residence until age 16, educational level, socioeconomic index (occupational SEI), and total (gross) household income. Table 3.1 shows the percentage distributions of these variables for the total sample of all three sections.

Table 3.1. Percentage distributions of respondents for total sample and by six sociocultural background characteristics.

The mean age of the respondents was 43.8 years. The distribution of ages varied from 15 to 81. Three age decades, which represented about 60% of the sample, were 30-39, 40-49, and 50-59 (23.6, 21.7, and 19.7%, respectively). For analytical purposes, the respondents were grouped into three age categories of 15-34 (31.0%), 35-54 (40.6%), and 55-81 (28.5%). The respondents in our sample were about 10 years older on the average than the general U.S. population; however, they are considered representative of those 15 years and older in the United States (Bureau of the Census, 1984). Males constituted 71.2% of the sample and females 28.8%. This is, of course, not representative of the general population of the United States, which is slightly over 50% female. However, we already knew that travelers and commuters on a parkway are more likely to be males (Hampe, 1983).

Youthful residence of the respondent was used as an indicator of scenic preference, since previous research has shown that the location of childhood residence influences aesthetic preferences more than recent adult residence (Hampe, 1974). Present residence was also checked to determine if it did make a difference. It did not. The place of residence up to age 16 generally reflected the national distribution of the U.S. population. Seventy-four percent of the respondents were from urban areas with populations of 2500 or more, and 26% were from rural areas. The respondents in this sample were about equally distributed among cities (36.4%), towns (34.2%) and country (29.4%). There are a few more individuals from the country in the sample than one would expect by chance, but this is not unexpected when sampling in a rural area such as the Blue Ridge Parkway.

Our sample also proved to be highly educated, with 18.8% having an advanced degree beyond the bachelor's level. Over twenty percent (23.7%) had a bachelor's degree, and 18.9% attended some college. Those with high school and grade school educations (29.2% and 9.4%, respectively) were underrepresented in comparison with the general population. The adult educational level in the United States is just about 12.5 years of education per adult individual.

The high educational levels are reflected in the high income levels of this sample as compared to the general U.S. population (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1984). The median household income in the United States is slightly over $21,000 a year. In our sample, 41.4% had a household income of $30,000 or more per year. About one-fifth (19.8%) had a household income of less than $15,000. This latter group consisted of a large number of students and retired individuals.

Our sample of respondents from the Blue Ridge Parkway can thus be characterized as being predominately male, with an early residence evenly distributed among the city, town, and country. They were highly educated, had higher than average income and occupational levels, and were representative of the adult population of the United States only in terms of age.

Interrelationships Between the Sociocultural Background Characteristics

The relationships that exist among the sociocultural background characteristics need to be discussed to understand their effects on vista preferences. The social background characteristics are both directly and indirectly related to one another.

Table 3.2 provides a quick summary of the correlations using Tau (a statistical technique that measures the degree of association between variables). Age was correlated negatively and significantly with education, income, and residence. This is due to the higher educational levels of the younger age cohorts, the effects of education upon the kinds of occupations one can enter, and subsequent income level. Lastly, age was related negatively to residence because of the migration of younger age cohorts to more urban areas. This means that the younger individuals live in urban areas, while older individuals are more likely to live in rural areas.

Table 3.2. Interrelated summary of background variables.

Sex of the respondent was correlated significantly with the respondents' annual gross household income. Males were more likely to have higher incomes than females. This relationship reflected the distribution of income by sex for the general population as well. Females on the average earn about 60% of what males earn (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1984).

Residence of one's youth was positively associated with education, occupational SEI, and income. Those who are more highly educated, in higher occupational levels, and who make more money live in the urban areas of the United States, as contrasted to those living in small towns or in rural areas of the country.

No relationship was found between sex and education, sex and occupational SEI, and sex and residence. No significant relationships were expected.

Our sample of respondents showed strong positive relationships among the variables of education, income and occupational SEI because these variables influence and are dependent upon one another. This was consistent with national surveys. We were then able to generalize to the national level about many of the findings about scenic preferences that are related to the social background characteristics.

The interrelationships of the sociocultural background characteristics are important in understanding the vista preferences of the respondents. When considered separately and in combination, they help to explain some of the variation in the scenic preferences of individuals.

Description and Analysis of Vista Preferences

Open Vista

Those variables which reflect our position in society—educational level, occupational SEI, and income level—were all related significantly to liking or not liking the Open Vista. All three variables were related negatively. That is, the lower the educational level or occupational SEI or income level of the respondent, the more the Open Vista is liked (see Table 3.3). Of those with an advanced degree, 45.3% liked these scenes as compared to 52.0% of those with a high school education and 54.5% of those with a grade school education. Approximately the same distribution of responses was found for the relationship between income and preference for the Open Vista. Finally, scenes of Open Vistas were liked more by the lower social class levels than the higher social class levels.

Table 3.3. Preference for open vista by background characteristics (percent*).

Age was related positively to liking an Open Vista and was close to being statistically significant (X² = 5.807 and P = .054). Older individuals were more likely to prefer the Open Vistas than were younger individuals by about 10% (51.2% to 41.4%, respectively). This positive relationship is consistent with the negative relationships of those measures of social class, level of education, income and occupational SEI. This is because older individuals in the sample and the general U.S. population have less education and lower income, and often are lower on the occupational SEI as contrasted to the younger individuals today.

Where the respondent was raised until age 16 (residence) was negatively associated (significantly) with preferring the Open Vistas. Those who grew up in the country preferred the Open Vista more (56.3%) than those who grew up in the city (45.9%).

Sex was not significantly related to liking or not liking the scenes of the Open Vista, but as will be seen, sex is an important factor in relationship to the preference of scenes in the other vistas.

The results are consistent between social class levels and preference for the Open Vista. Those who could be classified as members of the working and lower classes prefer the Open Vista scenes more than those of the middle and upper classes. At the same time, it should be kept in mind that this is a high status sample and probably indicates that the users of the parkway are of higher status than the general population. The differences are not overwhelming in the preference of scenes in the Open Vista, but they are, consistent. This is important for the individuals who use the parkway.

Unmaintained Vista

Sex was the most statistically significant variable in differentiating preferences of scenes comprising the Unmaintained Vista. Women were more likely to prefer the Unmaintained Vista (58.4%) than the men (46.2%, P = .008); see Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Preference for unmaintained vista by background characteristics (percent).

There were two other relationships where both chi square and Tau were statistically significant. Individuals who were raised in the country preferred Unmaintained Vistas (58.6%) more than those who were raised in the city (49.1%). Those who were raised in towns liked the Unmaintained Vistas least (44.4%).

The three measures of social class—education, occupational SEI, and income—were all related negatively to the Unmaintained Vista index. The Taus were all statistically significant.

The overall pattern of the relationships of the sociocultural background characteristics was consistent and in the same direction as found for the Open Vista. The only notable significant difference was with the females preferring the Unmaintained Vista more than did the males.

One-Ridged Vista

The results shown in Table 3.5 indicate that the relationships between preferences for the One-Ridged Vista and the socio-cultural background characteristics are consistent with the findings for the Open and Unmaintained Vistas. One of the relationships not statistically significant but still in the same direction as the previous ones is between sex and the One-Ridged Vista. Females were more likely to like these scenes very much (37.5%) as compared to males (28.4%).

Table 3.5. Preference for one ridge vista by background characteristics (percent).

Briefly summarizing the significant relationships, we found that those who liked the One-Ridged Vista more were those who had lower occupational SEI scores, were from lower educational levels, had lower income levels, grew up in the country, and were older. They liked this type of vista from 10 to 40% more than those who rated higher on the social class measures and those who were younger.

Developed Vista

The consistency of the relationships of the sociocultural background characteristics is again seen in the preference of the respondents for the Developed Vista (see Table 3.6). The most statistically significant variable (according to both the chi square and Tau analyses) was the relationship between educational level and the Developed Vista index. The lower the educational level of the respondents, the more likely they were to like a vista with some type of building in the view. Grade school- and high school-educated respondents were more likely to prefer this type of scene than the college-educated (48.4 and 44.1 to 28.7%, respectively).

Table 3.6. Preference for developed vista by background characteristics (percent).

The relationships were weaker, but with statistically significant Taus, between the Developed Vista index and youthful residence, occupational SEI, and sex. Again, as with the other vista indices, the Developed Vista was preferred more by those reared in the country, those of lower occupational SEI, and by females. A curvilinear relationship between age and the Developed Vista was found with those in the middle-aged category (age 35-54) preferring the Developed Vista more than those at the younger and older ends of the age continuum (38.1 to 35.2 and 31.3%, respectively). A curvilinear relationship was also found to exist with income. Those at the lower and upper ends of the income continuum were more likely to prefer the Developed Vista than those in the middle categories, but the differences were not statistically significant.

Finally, those from the lower social class levels were more likely to prefer the Developed Vista than those from the upper levels. It should be pointed out that 33 to 40% of those in the higher social classes, as measured by education, income, and occupational SEI, definitely did not like the Developed Vista.

Water Vista

The Water Vista, which was composed of both fast-moving and still scenes of water, was preferred significantly by more females (37.3%) than by males (30.5%) (see Table 3.7). Also statistically significant for both chi square and Tau was the relationship with income. Those of the lower income levels were more likely to prefer the Water Vista (38.3 and 38.1%, respectively) than those of the higher income levels (29.5 and 28.0%, respectively).

Table 3.7. Preference for water vista by background characteristics (percent).

Although the relationships of the Water Vista with age, youthful residence, educational level, or occupational SEI were not statistically significant, each relationship was consistent with the findings for the other vistas. The lower social class levels again preferred this vista more than the higher social class levels.

What is most noticeable about the preferences of the respondents for the Water Vista is the large proportion of individuals who are moderate in their preference for this particular vista. At least 50 percent of all the respondents moderately liked the Water Vista, regardless of their sociocultural background. This distribution sharply contrasts with that found for the One-Ridged and Developed Vistas, which were also constructed and analyzed as trichotomies. On the whole, only a very small proportion of the respondents did not like the Water Vista. Also, most respondents were much more likely to prefer this vista than any of the other vistas. (For more specific information, see the rankings of the individual scenes and the sub-types of vistas as delineated by Hammitt in Chapter 2).

Explanation and Prediction of the Five Vistas

Stepwise regression was performed on each of the five vista indices to determine how much of the variation of ranking scenes was explained by the six sociocultural background characteristics. Table 3.8 shows the three most important variables for predicting and explaining the choice of each vista index. Several important findings can be derived from these results. First, the proportion of variance (Multiple R-squared) explained by the independent variables is quite low, ranging from about 3 to 5% of the variation. Socio-cultural background characteristics, then, are not the main explanatory factors in the determination of vista preferences, at least for this sample of respondents and set of scenic vistas. However, it is helpful to know what types of individuals are most likely to use the Blue Ridge Parkway. The background differences of users do influence how individuals differentiate among the scenes they encounter and how much they like or do not like various types of scenes.

Table 3.8. The five vistas by the three most important variables for each (stepwise regression).

From a superficial as well as an intensive look at the 96 scenes, it is obvious that there is not much variety in the basic landscape forms that are being compared. This, along with the great number of choices (32 to each group of respondents at each data-gathering site), would decrease the possibility of explaining a great deal of variation of the dependent variables. If we compare the results from other research sites and studies of aesthetic preferences, the lack of a high percentage of explanation is not surprising (See Hampe, 1974, 1983; Zube, et al., 1975).

A second important finding from the regression analysis is the consistency of the importance of three background characteristics—sex, income and youthful residence—for the five vistas. From the cross-classification analysis, the respondent's sex was most often statistically significant and also showed the greatest percentage difference between categories. The same was true, but to a lesser extent, for income level and youthful residence.

Summary

The sociocultural background characteristics of the respondents were examined in relation to their preferences for the five vista indices—Open, Unmaintained, One-Ridged, Developed, and Water. They were found to differentiate between groups on the degree individuals preferred or did not prefer a particular vista. The consistency of preferring or not preferring the vistas was nothing short of remarkable.

This consistency was due in part to the lack of variety among the basic landforms of the different scenes (see Hampe and Noe, 1980; Zube, 1973). It can be stated that those individuals of the lower class levels, females, and the older persons like the open views along the Blue Ridge more than individuals who were of higher social class levels, males, and the younger persons. Further work needs to be done to determine why these groups liked or disliked these vistas.

In particular, we need to ask more questions about why a particular view is popular or unpopular. Is it the trees, the mountains, the water, the shrubs, the clouds, the color? Also, we need to consider the complexity and variety of the views, the reasons for the trip, what one does during a trip (driving or not driving), the individual's personal environmental concerns, and so on. Additional research in these areas would prove valuable in further understanding the aesthetic experiences of individuals who use the Blue Ridge.

REFERENCES

Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1984. U. S. Dept. of Labor, Washington, D.C. U. S. Gov. Printing Office, January 10, p. 84-85.

Hampe, G. D. 1974. Water-related Aesthetic Preferences of Wyoming Residents. Univ. of Wyoming, Laramie, WY.

Hampe, G. D. 1983. Final report on the parameters of sightseeing experiences of individuals along parkways and the effects upon scenic preferences. Univ. of Wyoming, Laramie, WY.

Hampe, G. D., and F. P. Noe. 1980. Visual complexity and preference for parkway scenes. Perceptual and Motor Skills 51:587-592.

U. S. Bureau of the Census. 1984. Statistical Abstract of the United States. Edition 105, Washington, D.C.

Zube, E. H. 1973. Rating everyday rural landscapes of the northeastern U.S. Landscape Architecture July:371-374.

Zube, E. H., D. G. Pitt, and T. W. Anderson. 1975. Perception and prediction of scenic resource values of the northeast. In Landscape Assessment Values, Perceptions, and Resources. E. H. Zube, R. O. Brush, and J. Fabos (eds.). Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross.