Introduction

1. The term preservationist is often used in an uncomplimentary way as a synonym for extremist. John McPhee, Encounters with the Archdruid (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971), p. 95. Here it has no such connotation. By preservationists, I mean those whose inclinations are to retain parklands largely (though not absolutely) as natural areas, without industrialization, commercialized recreation, or urban influences. There is no official preservationist position, and obviously no unanimity of view on any controversial question. Among the organizations that speak most consistently for such views are the National Parks and Conservation Association, the Wilderness Society, the Sierra Club, and Friends of the Earth. The bibliography at the end of this book surveys, though with no attempt at comprehensiveness, major influences in the preservationist literature.

It is my thesis that, however unself-consciously, those who speak for essentially undeveloped parks adhere to a set of generally consistent views. One major purpose of this book is to draw together and articulate those views as a coherent ideology for the parks.

2. While this is a book about national parks, by no means all the lands of national park quality are thus designated by the Congress. American public land history is a tangled web of confusing categories. Much of our high quality wilderness is within the national forests, administered by the Department of Agriculture, rather than by the Interior Department's National Park Service. The greatest acreage of all is administered by the Interior Department's Bureau of Land Management (BLM). And a good deal of superlative parkland is owned and managed by the states, or even by local governments.

Even the official "national park system" is a melange of national parks, national monuments, national recreation areas, and national lakeshores and seashores, as well as numerous historic sites and other miscellany. See Index of the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979). Each of these categories is managed under different legislative mandates.

My concern is not with the numerous distinctions Congress has made, but with the general question of how we ought to want to use our high-quality natural areas held in public ownership. Though I use the term national parks throughout, much of what I say is applicable to certain national forest and BLM lands, to state parks, and to a range of lands within the national park system, however designated.

Chapter 1. Creating Tradition

1. The standard history of the national parks is John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961). See also, Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); Hans Huth, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973); Joseph L. Sax, "America's National Parks: Their Principles, Purposes and Prospects," Natural History 85, no. 8 (October, 1976):57.

2. See Huth, Nature and the American, chap. 4.

3. Travelers' books and artistic work had, however, made western scenery familiar and popular. Huth, Nature and the American, chap: 8.

4. Act of June 30, 1864, 13 Stat. 325, ch. 184, §§ 1,2. Huth, Nature and the American, chap. 9.

5. Hutchings Illustrated California Magazine 4, no. 4 (October, 1859): 145.

6. For the early history of Yellowstone, see Aubrey L. Haines, Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974).

7. Hans Huth, "Yosemite: The Story of an Idea," Sierra Club Bulletin, 33, no. 3 (March, 1948):67.

8. Huth, Nature and the American, p. 223 n.12.

9. See note 4 above.

10. Act of March 1, 1872, 17 Stat. 32, ch. 24, § 1.

11. The history of the early parks is described in Ise, Our National Park Policy.

12. Act of August 25, 1916, 39 Stat. 535, ch. 408, § 1. Donald C. Swain "The Passage of the National Park Service Act of 1916," Wisconsin Magazine of History 50 (1966):4, 9-11.

13. H. Duane Hampton, How the U.S. Cavalry Saved Our National Parks (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971).

14. See Runte, National Parks: also Alfred Runte, "The National Park Idea: Origins and Paradox of American Experience," Journal of Forest History 21, no. 2 (April, 1977):64.

15. See note 7 above.

16. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, pp. 130—32.

17. Huth, "Yosemite," p. 63.

18. Hampton, How the U.S. Cavalry Saved Our National Parks, pp. 40-41.

19. The Maine Woods, ed. Joseph J. Moldenhauer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 121.

20. Carolyn de Vries, Grand and Ancient Forest: The Story of Andrew P. Hill and Big Basin Redwood State Park (Fresno, Calif.: Valley Publishers, 1978), p. 28. This attitude was doubtless a reaction to the excesses in the "reformation" of the wilderness that had seemed appropriate to earlier American thinkers. See Cecelia Tichi, New World, New Earth: Environmental Reform in American Literature from the Puritans Through Whitman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979).

21. Paul W. Gates and Robert W. Swenson, History of Public Land Law Development (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), chaps. 15, 22.

22. Erik Nilsson, Rocky Mountain National Park Trail Guide (Mountain View, Calif.: World Publications, 1978), pp. 6-9.

23. Runte, National Parks, pp. 77, 93; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 68; Haines, Yellowstone National Park, pp. 126, 128; Huth, Nature and the American, pp. 36, 38, 49.

24. Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 196. Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951), p. 145.

25. Runte, National Parks, p. 48.

26. Redwood National Park was not established until 1968. Act of October 2, 1968, 82 Stat. 931, Public Law 90—545, § 1. Congress enlarged the park in 1978. Act of March 27, 1978, 92 Stat. 163, Public Law 95-250, Title I, § 10 1(a)(1). See "The Tragedy of Red wood National Park," Natural Resources Defense Council Newsletter 6, no. 4, (July/August, 1977):1.

27. On the Hetch Hetchy battle, see Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965).

28. Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 307-17.

29. There were, of course, always concessions to commercial interests. Crater Lake National Park was opened to mining in 1902 (Act of May 22, 1902, 32 Stat. 202), and reclamation projects were permitted in both Rocky Mountain and Glacier National parks (Act of January 26, 1915, 38 Stat. 798; Act of May 11, 1910, 36 Stat. 354).

30. Harold K. Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976), p. 124.

31. Ibid., pp. 118-22.

32. Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, p. 97.

33. Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957), pp. 151-52. Almost from the beginning, Yosemite Valley has suffered from overdevelopment of various kinds. Shirley Sargent, Yosemite and Its Innkeepers (Yosemite, Calif.: Flying Spur Press, 1975), pp. 87, 89, 96, 116—17. Speaking of early tourists in Yosemite, John Muir wrote disparagingly: "They climb sprawlingly to their saddles like overgrown frogs, ride up the Valley with about as much emotion as the horses they ride upon and, comfortable when they have 'done it all', ... long for the safety and flatness of their proper homes." John Muir, Letters to a Friend (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1915), pp. 80—81.

34. "The service thus established shall promote and regulate the use of the . . . national parks . . . by such means and measures as conform to the fundamental purpose of the said parks . . . which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." Act of August 25, 1916, 39 Stat. 535, ch. 408, § 1.

35. See, e.g., U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Draft General Management Plan, Yosemite National Park, California (August, 1978), revised January, 1980. Compare with the (rejected) Yosemite National Park Preliminary Draft Master plan (August 12, 1974). See Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 437.

36. U.S., Congress, House, National Park Service Planning and Concession Operations: Joint Hearing Before Certain Subcommittees of the Committee on Government Operations and the Permanent Select Committee on Small Business, 93d Cong., 2d sess., December 20, 1974. Of course there were always some large concessioners, such as the railroads. See text at note 8 above.

37. E.g., Fred B. Eisemen, Jr., "Who Runs the Grand Canyon?", Natural History 87, no. 3 (March, 1978): 83—93; Liz Hymans, "The Flow of Wilderness," Not Man Apart (Friends of the Earth) 8, no. 5 (Mid-March, 1978).

38. Desert Solitaire (New York: Random House, Ballantine Books, 1971), p. 52. See also Edward Abbey and Philip Hyde, Slickrock: The Canyon Country (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1971), p. 71. A somewhat more tolerant view is revealed in "The Winnebago Tribe," in Edward Abbey, Abbey's Road (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1979), pp. 142—44.

39. See chapter 7.

Chapter 2. Codifying Tradition

1. A Sand County Almanac with Other Essays on Conservation from Round River (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 196.

2. T. H. Watkins and Dewitt Jones, John Muir's America (New York: Crown Publishers, 1976), p. 141.

3. Reprinted in Landscape Architecture 44, no. 1(1953): 17.

4. Hans Huth, "Yosemite: The Story of an Idea," Sierra Club Bulletin 33, no. 3 (March, 1948):66.

5. Introduction by Laura Wood Roper to Olmsted's report, Landscape Architecture 44, no. 1 (1953):13.

6. Ibid.

7. The report has been discussed occasionally in published sources. E.g., Holway R. Jones, John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1965), p. 30—32; and in Laura Wood Roper's biography, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), pp. 283— 87. See also U.S. Council on Environmental Quality, Third Annual Report (1972), p. 313. On October 12, 1979, Congress finally established a Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site. Public Law 96—87

8. "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," Landscape Architecture 44, no. 1(1953): 17.

9. Ibid., p. 20.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid., p. 21.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid. Notably, Olmsted's ideas parallel the views of those who promoted the establishment of libraries, universities, and museums. William B. Ashley, "The Promotion of Museums," Proceedings of the American Association of Museums 7 (1913):39, 44; Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), p. 279; Sidney Ditzion, Arsenals of a Democratic Culture (Chicago: American Library Association, 1947), p. 153. Olmsted's view was, of course, an article of faith in nineteenth-century America; see Frank Moore, ed., Andrew Johnson: Speeches (Boston: Little, Brown, 1866), p. 56.

15. "The Yosemite Valley," p. 22

16. Ibid., p. 20.

17. Charles M. Dow, The State Reservation at Niagara: A History (Albany: J. B. Lyon Co., 1914).

18. "The Movement for the Redemption of Niagara," New Princeton Review (New York, A. C. Armstrong & Sons, 1886), 1:233—45; Alfred Runte, "Beyond the Spectacular: The Niagara Falls Preservation Campaign," New York State Historical Society Quarterly 57 (January, 1973):30—50.

19. "Notes by Mr. Olmsted," Special Report of the New York State Survey on the Preservation of the Scenery of Niagara Falls and Fourth Annual Report on the Triangulation of the State for the Year 1879 (Albany: Charles von Benthuysen & Sons, 1880), p. 27

20. "Report of Messrs. Olmsted and Vaux," Supplemental Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara Transmitted to the Legislature January 31, 1887 (Albany: Argus Co., 1887), p. 21. The description that follows in the text is taken from this and the 1879 report.

21. See note 19 above.

22. Ibid.

23. "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees," p. 21.

24. See note 19 above.

25. "Nature," in Ralph Waldo Emerson, Selected Prose and Poetry, 2d ed., ed. Reginald L. Cook, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Rinehart Editions, 1969), p. 38.

26. "The American Scholar," ibid., p. 55.

27. See generally Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).

Chapter 3. Perpetuating Tradition

1. There is a related scholarly literature. E.g., Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, Beyond Boredom and Anxiety (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975); Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1949); Roger Caillois, Man, Play and Games (New York: Free Press, 1961); Paul Weiss, Sport: A Philosophic Inquiry (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969); Allen Guttman, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978).

2. Extensive bibliographies are provided in Arnold Gingrich. The Well-Tempered Angler (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), pp. 317—23 and The Joys of Trout (New York: Crown Publishers, 1973), pp. 251—64.

3. The Joys of Trout, p. 6.

4. A River Never Sleeps (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1946), p. 268.

5. (New York: Crown Publishers, 1971), p. xiii.

6. (London: Navarre Society, 1925), pp. 48-49.

7. Ibid., pp. 114, 129.

8. Ibid., p. 66.

9. Ibid., pp. 43, 51.

10. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 42.

11. A River Never Sleeps, p. 250.

12. Ibid., pp. 79—80.

13. See, e.g., Colin Fletcher, The Man Who Walked Through Time (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 1967).

14. A River Never Sleeps, p. 272.

15. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972). See also Stephen R. Kellert, "Attitudes and Characteristics of Hunters and Anti-hunters," in Transactions of the 43rd North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference (Washington, D.C.: Wildlife Management Institute, 1978), pp. 412—23; Paul Shepard, Jr., The Tender Carnivore and the Sacred Game (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), chap. 4.

16. Gasset, Meditations on Hunting, pp. 75, 35.

17. "Wildlife in American Culture," in A Sand County Almanac with Other Essays on Conservation from Round River (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 197.

18. Ibid. This is an observation routinely made in the mountaineering literature. See Csikszentmihalyi, Beyond Boredom and Anxiety, pp. 48, 75; Jeremy Bernstein, Mountain Passages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), p. 37; Geoffrey Winthrop Young, Mountain Craft (London: Methuen Co., 1949), p. 3.

19. The best discussion appears in the report of the United States Council on Environmental Quality, David Sheridan, "Off-Road Vehicles on Public Land" (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979).

20. Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (New York: Bantam Books, 1976).

21. E.g., J. Ginsberg, R. Mintz, and W. S. Walter, The Fragile Balance: Environmental Problems of the California Desert (Stanford: Stanford Law School Environmental Law Society, 1976), chap. 3.

22. Sheridan, "Off-Road Vehicles on Public Land," p. 2.

23. Lee Gutkind, Bike Fever (New York: Avon Books, 1974), pp. 211—13.

24. Sally Wimer, The Snowmobiler's Companion (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), pp. x, 150.

25. A characteristic older book is Guido Rey, The Matterhorn (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1907). The modern genre is illustrated by Maurice Herzog, Annapurna (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1953). A. C. Spectorsky, ed., The Book of the Mountains (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955) contains an extensive collection of mountaineering writing. See also note 18 above; and notes 26, 27, 28 below.

26. The Maine Woods (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 65.

27. Chris Bonington, Everest the Hard Way (New York: Random House, 1976).

28. Galen Rowell, In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1977). See also Galen Rowell, High and Wild: A Mountaineer's World (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1979).

29. Csikszentmihalyi, Beyond Boredom and Anxiety, p. 75.

30. Rowell, In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods, pp. 111, 178, and Bonington, Everest the Hard Way, p. 14.

31. Bonington, Everest the Hard Way, p. 14.

32. Rowell, In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods, p. 111.

33. Ibid.

34. Quoted in Rowell, In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods, p. 147.

35. "A Perilous Night on Mount Shasta," from Steep Trails, in Edwin Way Teale, ed., The Wilderness World of John Muir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976), pp. 251—65.

36. Norman Foerster, Nature in American Literature (New York: Russell & Russell, 1923), p. 245.

37. Rowell, In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods, pp. 169—70.

38. Ibid., p. 157.

39. Ibid., p. 110.

40. Ascent, 1964, pp. 23—25.

41. Ibid., p. 23.

42. Ibid., p. 24.

43. "The Climber As Visionary," Ascent, 1969, p. 6.

44. Ibid.

45. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Office of Public Affairs, "Editorial Briefs," 7, no. 34 (August 21, 1979), p. 3.

46. "The Bear," in The Portable Faulkner, ed. Malcolm Cowley (New York: Viking Press, 1967), p. 199.

47. Ibid., p. 197.

48. In the collection In Our Time (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970), pp. 131—56. Another lovely Hemingway fishing scene appears in chapter 7 of The Sun Also Rises (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1926).

49. Ibid., p. 134.

50. The background of "Big Two-Hearted River" is explained in a later Hemingway story, "A Way You'll Never Be," in Ernest Hemingway, The Nick Adams Stories (New York: Bantam Books, 1973), p. 135.

51. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952). The hunt is a persistent and complex theme in Hemingway's writings, as in his life. The safari in The Green Hills of Africa (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963) and the exegesis of bullfighting in Death in the Afternoon (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960) both show a fascination with the kill characteristic of the author's own behavior. Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969).

52. The Old Man and the Sea, p. 50.

53. Ibid., p. 54.

54. Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (Garden City, 124 N.Y.: Doubleday, Anchor Books, 1954), p. 39. See generally Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).

55. Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950).

56. Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns (Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1870; reprint ed., New York: Arno Press and The New York Times, 1970), pp. 22—23.

57. E.g., see Muir's advice to businessmen in "The Gospel for July," Sunset 23, no. 1 (July, 1909):1. See also Joseph L. Sax, "Freedom: Voices From The Wilderness," Environmental Law 7 (1977):568; John Hammond, "Wilderness and Life in Cities," Sierra: The Sierra Club Bulletin 62, no. 4 (April, 1977):12—14.

58. Alaska Wilderness (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973), p. 165. See also Marshall's "The Problem of Wilderness," Scientific Monthly 30 (February, 1930): 141—48.

59. Carl Bode, ed., The Portable Thoreau (New York: Viking, 1975), pp. 456—57. Note the strikingly parallel description in Rowell, In the Throne Room of the Mountain Gods: p. 145.

60. "The [nature] hunter deeply respects and admires the creature he hunts. This is the mysterious, ancient contradiction of the real hunter's character—that he can at once hunt the thing he loves." J. Madson and E. Kozicky, "The Hunting Ethic," Rod and Gun 166, no. 3 (1964): 12, quoted in Kellert, "Attitudes and Characteristics of Hunters and Anti-hunters," p. 415. See note 46 above.

61. Bode, Portable Thoreau, p. 458.

62. Ibid., pp. 460, 458, 459. See also The Maine Woods, ed. Joseph J. Moldenhauer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 119.

63. "Walking," in Bode, Portable Thoreau, p. 609.

64. The Maine Woods, pp. 69—71, 78, 155-56.

65. Walden, in Bode, Portable Thoreau, pp. 394-400.

66. On the boredom of the tame see, e.g., Irving Howe, "Notes on Mass Culture," in Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America, ed. Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957), pp. 496, 499. See also Eric Larrabee and Rolf Meyersohn, eds., Mass Leisure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1958).

67. Bode, Portable Thoreau, pp. 618—19.

68. "There is something servile in the habit of seeking after a law which we may obey." "Walking," in Bode, Portable Thoreau, p. 623.

"The spirit of the American freeman is already suspected to be timid, imitative, tame." "The American Scholar," in Ralph Waldo Emerson, Selected Prose and Poetry, 2d ed., ed. Reginald L. Cook (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), p. 55. See J. S. Mill, On Liberty (New York: Penguin Books, Pelican Edition, 1974), pp. 134—35. The ultimate political consequence for societies whose citizens cease to think for themselves is imagined in Yevgeny Zamyatin's antitotalitarian novel, We (New York: Bantam Books, 1972), p. 23.

69. A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Bros., 1954), p. 214. See note 43 above.

70. (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 1971). See also Michael Murphy, Golf in the Kingdom (New York: Dell, Delta Books, 1972).

71. Zen in the Art of Archery, p. 74.

72. Ibid., p. 72.

Chapter 4. The Rise and Decline of Ecological Attitudes

1. The Sane Society (New York: Rinehart & Co., 1955), p. 136; see also Roger Caillois, Man, Play and Games (New York: Free Press, 1961), pp. 114—15, 120—22; R. M. MacIver, The Pursuit of Happiness (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), chap. 6; George A. Pettitt, Prisoners of Culture (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970).

2. Irving Howe, "Notes on Mass Cultures," in Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America, ed. Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957), pp. 496, 499. See also Eric Larrabee and Rolf Meyersohn, eds., Mass Leisure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1958).

3. John C. Hendee, George H. Stankey, and Robert C. Lucas, Wilderness Management, U.S. Forest Service Miscellaneous Publication no. 1365 (October, 1978), pp. 306—7. See also William R. Butch, Jr., "Recreation Preferences As Culturally Determined Phenomena," in Elements of Outdoor Recreation Planning, ed. B. L. Driver (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1974), pp. 61—87.

4. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968), p. 62.

5. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), p. 141.

6. The idea goes beyond the usual concept of option value employed by economists. See B. A. Weisbrod, "Collective-Consumption Services of Individual Consumption Goods," Quarterly Journal of Economics 78, no. 3 (August, 1964):47 1—77. An option value requires us to identify some good or service we do not presently use, but want to retain the opportunity to use. To identify an option value, we must presently recognize that we may want that good or service in the future. Here the concern is with the anterior question, what are the sorts of things to which we ought to attach option values? The failure of ordinary market behavior to reveal the intensity of our wants is explored by the economist Tibor Scitovsky in The Joyless Economy: An Inquiry into Human Satisfaction and Consumer Dissatisfaction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).

The conventional economic view is that public support is justified if benefits come to us without having to pay for them and if we value those benefits. Baumol and Bowen, "On the Rationale of Public Support," in Performing Arts—The Economic Dilemma (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1967), p. 369. The quite distinct question the preservationist poses is which benefits provided by parks we should want to value.

7. I was introduced to this term by Professor Guido Calabresi of Yale Law School.

8. The content and range of contemporary controversy is illustrated by congressional hearings on National Arts and Humanities Endowment legislation. E.g., U.S., Congress, Senate, Arts, Humanities and Cultural Affairs Act of 1975: Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Select Education, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, and Special Subcommittee on Arts and Humanities, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 94th Cong., 1st sess., on H.R. 7216 and S. 1800, November 12—14, 1975

To the extent that publicly supported museums have been persuaded to seek popularity by dramatic exhibitions of celebrated and well-publicized works, there has been an intense critical response within the profession: "The need has never been greater for rigorous standards and their most scrupulous observance," in Brian O'Doherty, ed., Museums in Crisis (New York: George Braziller, 1972), p. 83. Hilton Kramer, "The Considerable But Troubling Achievements of Mr. Hoving," New York Times, November 11, 1976, sec. 2, p. 1. See also Nathanial Burt, Palaces for the People (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1977), p. 5. Karl E. Meyer, The Art of Museum: Power, Money, Ethics (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1979).

Such controversies are as old as public cultural institutions themselves. E.g., Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), pp. 279—83; Laurence R. Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), pp. 100—110; Daniel M. Fox, Engine of Culture: Philanthropy and Art Museums (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1963); Sidney Ditzion, Arsenals of a Democratic Culture (Chicago: American Library Association, 1947).

9. To some degree we must yield autonomy even in the routine functions of government. Walter Lippman, The Phantom Public (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1925).

10. The typical professional position is summed up in L. Burress, "How Censorship Affects the Schools," Wisconsin Council of Teachers of English Special Bulletin no. 8 (October, 1963): "Censorship is the use of non-professional standards for accepting or rejecting a book. Professional standards are based on the traditional body of literature in English, and assume a familiarity with that literature. Along with the literature is a tradition of literary criticism explaining and evaluating the literature. Though a group of professionally trained people may well disagree on the merits of a given book, a working consensus can be obtained, subject to continued debate in the forum provided by literary journals. That is . . . a public process, and can be joined by any interested person who will familiarize himself with the rules of the game."

Regarding professional group values as a powerful constraint and influence on personal values, see, e.g., Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, The Social Psychology of Organizations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966), pp. 51—57; Jerome Bruner et al., "Personal Values as Selective Factors in Perception," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 43(1948): 142, 154; Mortimer B. Smith et al., Opinions and Personality (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1956), pp. 41-43; H. C. Kelman, "Three Processes of Social Influence," in Attitudes, ed. Marie Johoda and Neil Warren (Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1966), p. 153.

11. The appropriate legal ground for determining the scope of a teacher's or librarian's academic freedom has been a subject of intense controversy among legal scholars, especially at the preuniversity level, where formal authority over curriculum is vested in a school board. Where the teacher is plainly in the mainstream of professional and critical judgment, rather than acting idiosyncratically or officiously testing the bounds of community decency, the inclination to follow the intellectual tradition in the profession is very strong, whatever the formal ground for the decision. E.g., Keefe v. Geanakos, 418 F.2d 359 (1st Cir. 1969); Parducci v. Rutland, 316 F. Supp. 352 (M.D. Ala. 1970); Mailloux v. Kiley, 436 F.2d 565 (1st Cir. 1971), 448 F.2d 1242 (1st Cir. 1971); Minarcini v. Strongsville City School Dist., 541 F.2d 577 (6th Cir. 1976); Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968). Compare Presidents Council v. Community School Board, 457 F.2d 289 (2d Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 998 (1972), criticized in O'Neil "Libraries, Liberties and the First Amendment," University of Cincinnatti Law Review 42(1973):209. For a reference to the extensive legal literature on the subject see Goldstein, "The Asserted Right of Public School Teachers to Determine What They Teach," University of Pennsylvania Law Review 124(1976): 1293.

12. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975).

13. Ibid., p. 196.

14. On Becoming a Person (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961). A more detailed explanation of Rogers's theory appears in "A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in the Client-Centered Framework," in Psychology: A Study of a Science, ed. Sigmund Koch, vol. 3 (New York: McGraw Hill, 1959). Rogers's views and their place in modern psychology are described in Calvin S. Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Personality, 2d ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1970).

15. Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Bros., 1954), p. 214. See also The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (New York: Viking, 1971).

16. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971).

17. Ibid., pp. 426—27. A view rather like Rawls's appears in the economist Tibor Scitovsky's The Joyless Economy: An Inquiry into Human Satisfaction and Consumer Dissatisfaction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). For an example of current ways of studying user satisfaction see, e.g., U.S., Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Proceedings: River Recreation Management and Research Symposium, January 24-27, 1977, Minneapolis, Minn., North Central Forest Experiment Station, General Technical Report NC-28, pp. 359—64.

18. E.g., Reuben Fine, The Psychology of the Chess Player (New York: Dover Publications, 1967), noting Ernest Jones's classic paper, "The Problem of Paul Murphy," read to the British Psychoanalytical Society in 1930. Jones's paper provoked a number of psychological studies of chess players, all of which concur in describing "hostile impulses," "sense of overwhelming mastery," "love of pugnacity," and "competitiveness."

19. There seems to be considerable agreement that winning a game, simply to prevail, diminishes the depth of the player's satisfaction. But whether the structure of the game itself is significant remains an unsettled, and largely unexplored, question. See Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1949), p. 197, criticizing the systemization and professionalization of sports. See also Allen Guttman, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), p. 9, discussing the thesis that games are structured devices for exhibiting mastery, but making no distinction between zero-sum games and others which permit but, do not depend on winning against an opponent.

Chapter 5. The War and Postwar Years

1. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Environmental Assessment, Development Concept Plan (September, 1975).

2. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Master Plan (March 29, 1973).

3. E.g., U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Proposed General Management Plan, Wilderness Recommendation, Road Study Alternatives, Final Environmental Statement (July, 1979), p. 29: ". . . yearly visitation from 1962, when the recreation area was established, through 1977. Linear trend analysis for the 16-year period yields an average annual increase of about 25 percent per year. . . ."

4. The discussion of the Olympic National Park controversy is taken from the following sources: U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "National Park Service War Work, December 7, 1941 to June 30, 1944, and June 30, 1944 to October 1, 1945," mimeographed; memorandum, Newton B. Drury, director, National Park Service, to secretary of the interior, December 18, 1942; Abe Fortas, acting secretary of the interior, to Senator Homer T. Bone, December 17, 1942; confidential memorandum, superintendent, Olympic National Park, to director, National Park Service, June 11, 1941; supplemental memorandum on supply of Sitka spruce, from W. T. Andrews, consultant, November 17, 1940; John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), pp. 392—93; annual reports of the secretary of the interior for 1942, 1943, 1944; Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951), p. 306; Elmo R. Richardson, Dams, Parks and Politics (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1973), pp. 10-13; "Will the Needs of War Require Loss of Olympic National Park," The Living Wilderness, May, 1943, pp. 26—27; Edgar B. Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation 1911—1945, 2 vols. (Hyde Park, N.Y.: General Services Administration, 1957), 2:559-60, 572—73, 578—79.

5. Developments on national forest land sometimes affect the parks quite directly. The Jackson Hole ski development in Wyoming has generated urbanizing pressures that are now being felt on land directly adjacent to Grand Teton National Park. The description of the Mineral King controversy is taken from these sources: Jeanne Ora Nienaber, "Mineral King: Ideological Battleground for Land Use Disputes" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, n.d.); Susan R. Schrepfer, "Perspectives on Conservation: Sierra Club Strategies in Mineral King," Journal of Forest History 20, no. 5 (October, 1976): 176—90; Commentary, "Mineral King Goes Downhill," Ecology Law Quarterly 5 (1976):555—74; Peter Browning, "Mickey Mouse in the Mountains," Harper's 244 (March, 1972):65, 245 (August, 1972):102; U.S., Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Region 5, Mineral King Final Environmental Statement (San Francisco, February 26, 1976).

6. Sierra Club Bulletin 52, no. 11 (November, 1967):7. Sierra Club v. Morton, 405 U.S. 727 (1972).

7. The Mineral King area has now been added to the adjacent Sequoia National Park, with a mandate that will prevent its development as a ski resort. Public Law 95-625, § 314, 92 Stat. 3479 (November 10, 1978).

8. Los Angeles Times, January 13, 1978, p. 36.

9. Schrepfer, "Perspectives on Conservation," p. 184.

10. Calculating demand, as an economic matter, is complex and difficult. Marion Clawson and Jack L. Knetch, Economics of Outdoor Recreation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); U.S., Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Outdoor Recreation: A Legacy for America, appendix A, "An Economic Analysis" (December, 1973). Economists are concerned with observed willingness to pay as a measure of benefits from the project. "Mineral King Valley: Demand Theory and Resource Valuation," in John V. Krutilla and Anthony C. Fisher, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), chap. 8, pp. 189—218. My concern here is with a complication of that measure from the perspective of a supplier who is willing to forego some benefits, measured by consumer willingness to pay, for others measured by collectively articulated goals; and who thus feels obliged to meet some, but not all, conventional demand. Economic analysts may ignore such distinctions: "Suppose (winter) visitors to a ski site are going for other purposes as well, simply to play in the snow, say, or to enjoy the social environment. Is this a problem? We don't think so." Krutilla and Fisher, Economics of Natural Environments, p. 198.

The existence of a given recreational demand does not itself demonstrate that national park policy should be committed to its fulfillment, any more than a demand for cosmetic surgery has to be fulfilled by a public medical care policy. Likewise, we might well decide upon a public policy of building hospitals, and not hotels, though there is a considerable demand for hotel rooms, and vacationers might be willing and able to outbid sick people for available beds. Collectively, as owners of the public lands and citizens, we can have a collective desire different from the sum of market demands made by each of us individually. We may decide to forego the greatest dollar return on our property in favor of some use that we believe provides a greater return in satisfaction.

11. See U.S., Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Environmental Statement (Final), Mount Hebgen, Management Alternatives, Gallatin National Forest, USDA-FS-R1(11) FES-Adm-76-25 (May 13, 1977); petition of Montana Wilderness Association, Montana Wildlife Federation, the Environmental Information Center, Wilderness Society and the Sierra Club (United States, Department of Agriculture, Before the Regional Forester, Region 1, 1977); Letter of Final Administrative Determination, John R. McGuire, chief, Forest Service, to James H. Goetz (August 1, 1978).

12. Bruce L. Nurse to Lewis E. Hawkes, forest supervisor, Gallatin National Forest, February 21, 1977, in the petition of Montana Wilderness Association (see note 11 above), exhibit 10.

13. Morton Lund, "The Sage of Sun Valley," Ski Area Management Spring, 1972, p. 35.

14. Clay R. Simon to Lewis E. Hawkes, forest supervisor, Gallatin National Forest, May 27, 1975, in the petition of Montana Wilderness Association (see note 11 above), exhibit 9.

15. See note 12, above.

16. Environmental Statement, p. B-15.

17. See note 12 above. Charles J. Cicchetti, Joseph J. Seneca, and Paul Davidson, The Demand and Supply of Outdoor Recreation (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1969); Environmental Statement, p. B-19.

18. Such facilities require "capability of handling large crowds efficiently (volume is everything in such an operation) [and] keeping [the visitor] in a happy (i.e., spending) frame of mind." Richard Schickel, The Disney Version (New York: Avon Books, 1968), p. 114.

19. William E. Shands and Robert G. Healy, The Lands Nobody Wanted (Washington, D.C.: Conservation Foundation, 1977), pp. 47-48.

20. U.S., Congress, House, National Park Service Planning and Concession Operations: Joint Hearing Before Certain Subcommittees of the Committee on Government Operations and the Permanent Select Committee on Small Business, 93d Cong., 2d sess., December 20, 1974.

21. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park Preliminary Draft Master Plan (August 12, 1974).

22. U.S., Congress, House, National Park Service Planning and Concession Operations, pp. 226-27, 233—36, 238-41, 290—95.

23. The most recent Park Service plan for Yosemite recommends some reduction in the existing facilities at the park. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Final General Management Plan for Yosemite National Park (January, 1980). The draft plan of August, 1978, was more far-reaching.

24. The Park Service itself at times promotes development in order to generate demand for visits at sparsely used parks, focusing on what it take to attract casual tourists passing by: In the now-shelved master plan for Guadalupe Mountains National Park in Texas (recommended March 29, 1973), park service planners observed: "Visitor use . . . will be seriously impeded until motels, restaurants and campgrounds become available within a convenient distance [p. 38]." To make the park "a magnet for visitors [p. 2]," a tramway to the top of Guadalupe Peak was recommended as an "educational and inspirational experience [p. 37]." See notes 1 and 2 above.

25. Alta's economic viability may depend on its proximity to day users from nearby Salt Lake City. If skiing without resort facilities is not profitable in most circumstances, the question for public policy would be whether we want to subsidize that activity, as we do many others.

26. Steven V. Roberts, "Visitors Are Swamping the National Parks," New York Times, September 1, 1969, p. 15.

27. The Revolt of the Masses (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1957), p. 58.

28. Ibid., pp. 57—59: "The world which surrounds the new man . . . incites his appetite, which in principle can increase indefinitely . . . two fundamental traits: the free expansion of his vital desires . . . and his radical ingratitude towards all that has made possible the ease of his existence. These traits together make up the well-known psychology of the spoilt child. . . . To spoil means to put no limit on caprice, to give one the impression that everything is permitted to him and that he has no obligations.

Chapter 6. Science and the Struggle for Bureaucratic Power

1. Act of October 21, 1976, 90 Stat. 2733, Public Law 94—378, Title III, § 301, repealing a provision directing the construction of a road from the Chincoteague—Assateague Island Bridge to an area in the wildlife refuge, for recreation purposes.

2. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Gateway National Recreation Area, General Management Plan, Discussion Draft (September, 1976), pp. 14, 34. A decision paper was issued in April, 1978, and a general management plan and final environ mental statement in 1979.

3. Ibid., p. 64.

4. One of the most encouraging Park Service expressions of intent is the "interpretive concepts" section of the Draft Master Plan for Acadia National Park (May, 1976), pp. 22—26.

5. In his journal for October 23, 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson said: "Culture is not the trimming and turfing of gardens, but the showing [of] the true harmony of the unshorn landscape . . ." E. W. Emerson and W. E. Forbes, eds., Journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 4 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1910) p. 340.

6. The significance of Thoreau's contrasting of tameness and wildness may be seen even in these seemingly minor matters. In The Disney Version (New York: Avon Books, 1968), p. 39, Richard Schickel finds in the Disney films "a drive . . . toward . . . multiple reductionism; wild things and wild behavior were often made comprehensible by converting them into cuteness, mystery was explained by a joke and . . . terror was resolved by . . . a discreet averting the camera's eye from the natural processes. . . . [T]here is something deeper than [money] at work in this national passion to tame. . . ."

7. Jeremy Bernstein, Mountain Passages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), p. 66. See also, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Environment Directorate, "The Growth of Ski-Tourism and Environmental Stress in Switzerland," ENV/TOUR/78.5, Paris, April 25, 1978.

Chapter 7. A House Divided

1. Act of September 3, 1964, Public Law 88—577, 78 Stat. 890, 16 U.S.C. § 1131.

2. Francoise Leydet, The Grand Canyon (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1964). See also T. H. Watkins et al., The Grand Colorado: The Story of a River and Its Canyons (Palo Alto: American West Publishing Co., 1969), p. 270.

3. Eliot Porter, The Place No One Knew: Glen Canyon on the Colorado (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1963); see National Parks Ass'n v. Udall, Civil No. 3904—62 (U.S. Dist. Cr. 1962). The earlier, precedent-setting battle over the proposed Dinosaur Monument—Echo Park Dam is described in John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), pp. 476-80.

4. J. W. Powell, The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons (New York: Dover Publications, 1961), a republication of the original work published in 1895 under the title Canyons of the Colorado. For a fine biography of Powell, see Wallace Stegner, Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1954).

5. U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Colorado River Management Plan, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (December 20, 1979), p. 1. See idem, "Final Environmental Statement, Proposed Colorado River Management Plan, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (n.d.).

6. Colorado River Management Plan, pp. 8-9.

7. Final Environmental Statement, p. 11-41. Detailed information about river controversies appears in U.S., Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Proceedings: River Recreation Management and Research Symposium, January 24-27, 1977, Minneapolis, Minn., North Central Forest Experiment Station, General Technical Report NC-28).

8. E.g., Fred B. Eiseman, Jr., "Who Runs the Grand Canyon?", Natural History 87, no. 3 (March, 1978):83—93; Liz Hymans, "The Flow of Wilderness," Not Man Apart (Friends of the Earth) 8, no. 5 (Mid-March, 1978).

9. Wilderness Public Rights Fund v. Kleppe, Eisemann v. Kleppe, 13 ERC 2094 (9th Cir. 1979); Western River Expeditions, Inc. v. Morton, Civ. No. C-125-B (U.S. Dist. Cr. Utah), Order of June 4, 1973; Grand Canyon National Park v. Stitt, No. 77-722 (U.S. Dist. Cr. Ariz.) (filed September 19, 1977, pending).

10. See note 5 above.

11. It is appropriate for the Park Service to put some maximum limit on the duration of visits. There is an administrable line between leisure and monopoly.

12. Colorado Outward Bound School River Trips, for example, have a very different perspective. See their undated mimeo pamphlet, "Which Trip for You." They do not run trips in Grand Canyon National Park.

13. E.g ., "Jack Currey's Western River Expeditions" (1977 catalog), p. 28; American River Touring Association, "River Adventure: 1978," p. 21.

14. Adventure Bound, Inc., "River Expeditions 1977" (unpaged). This concessioner does not run trips in Grand Canyon National Park; its area is from Dinosaur National Monument and from above Arches National Park down to Glen Canyon National Recreation Area.

15. "Jack Currey's," p. 28.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid, p. 4.

18. American River Touring 1979 catalog, p. 9 (7 days, Lee's Ferry to Diamond Creek).

19. See Roggenbuck and Schreyer, "Relations Between River Trip Motives and Perception of Crowding, Management Preference and Experience Satisfaction," in U.S., Department of Agriculture, Proceedings: River Recreation Management and Research Symposium, pp. 339—64. Mordechai Shechter and Robert C. Lucas, Simulation of Recreational Use for Park and Wilderness Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), chap. 9.

20. When such conflicts arise, policy considerations other than recreation may be determinative. For example, a decision might be made to retain an area as wilderness for its resource values, or to retain scientific or archeological features, even though to do so would prevent meeting recreational demands that would have prevailed if the only conflict were between competing recreational policies. So it is quite possible that—for reasons unrelated to recreation policy—a place like Grand Canyon would be closed to high density service recreation even though there is a shortage of service recreation areas and an "over-abundance" of pristine areas. Similarly, a determination of strong industrial need could justify removing an area from management for reflective recreation, and permit service recreation, though there are already abundant opportunities for service recreation. In such a case, recreation policy generally would be subordinated to some other priority (such as the need to mine a greatly needed mineral). Nothing in this book is meant to suggest that recreation policy, per se, must prevail over other policies. It is directed solely to conflicts among competing recreational policies.

21. E.g., Smoky Mountain Field School, a series of extended summer workshops cosponsored by the National Park Service and the University of Tennessee Division of Continuing Education. Cf. the Yellowstone Institute, run by the Yellowstone Library and Museum Association, and the Yosemite Institute's School Weeks program.

22. Woodall's Trailer and RV Travel, January, 1978, p. 5.

23. See note 4 above.

24. Richard Jones's Worldwide River Expeditions, "Rivers USA 1977," p. 3.

25. "1977 Colorado River & Trail Expeditions, Inc., p. 1.

26. American River Touring, p. 21.

27. A nice description of going it alone in the canyon today is "Down the River with Major Powell," in Edward Abbey, The Journey Home (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1977), chap. 17.

28. Title 2300, Recreation Management, ¶ 2331.11c, exhibit I.

29. The Forest Service had an analogous policy of refraining from cutting commercial timber right up to highways so that citizens—offended by the idea of murdering trees, though they used wood products—would be screened from unwanted reality. Harold K. Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976), p. 139.

30. The truly self-defining individual can pay a high price in loneliness for his or her inner freedom, and that price is nowhere more poignantly portrayed than in Thoreau's journals. See Odell Shepard, The Heart of Thoreau's Journals (New York: Dover Publications, 1961), pp. 142, 172—73, 175. "If an individual gives up his distinctiveness in a group . . . he does it because he feels the need of being in harmony with them rather than in opposition to them." Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, ed. and trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton & Co. , 1939), p. 24.

31. "The master had but to look at him, when this young man would fling himself back as though struck by lightening, place his hands rigidly at his sides, and fall into a state of military somnambulism, in which it was plain to any eye that he was open to the most absurd suggestion that might be made to him. He seemed quite content in his abject state, quite pleased to be relieved of the burden of voluntary choice." Thomas Mann, "Mario and the Magician," in Stories of Three Decades (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1936), p. 560.

"I tell Thee that man is tormented by no greater anxiety than to find someone quickly to whom he can hand over that gift of freedom with which the ill-fated creature is born. But only one who can appease their conscience can take over their freedom." Fyodor Dostoevski, The Brothers Karamazov (New York: Modern Library, 1950), p. 302.

Chapter 8. Conclusion

1. E.g., Chez des Amis, 139 W. 87th St., New York, New York.

2. René Jules Dubos, "The Genius of the Place," Tenth Annual Horace M. Albright Conservation Lectureship, University of California at Berkeley, School of Forestry and Conservation, February 26, 1970.

3. Clara Barrus, Our Friend John Burroughs (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914), p. 131.