War in the Pacific Archelogy and History of Guam

4. History of the Marianas Islands 1521-1941

The first European discovery from the eastward of islands in the Pacific Ocean was that of the Marianas by Ferdinand Magellan, 1521. Emerging into the South Sea, through the ice-choked strait which bears his name, in November 1520, Magellan, with his little fleet, crossed the entire eastern and central Pacific without sighting a single inhabited island until his landfall in the Marianas on March 6, 1521. The exact point is uncertain; Umatac Bay, where the Magellan monument is situated, is only one possibility. [1]

Proceeding westward, after a few days, to the Philippines, Magellan was killed on Mactan in April. His chief pilot, Sebastian del Cano, continued on from the Philippines, through the Indies and across the Indian Ocean and around Cape Horn into the Atlantic, arriving back at Seville on September 8, 1522, with one ship, Vittoria and 31 of the original 237 men completing the first circumnavigation of the earth.

Cano set out to repeat the voyage in 1525-26, as Garcia Jofre de Loayza's second officer, and again struck across the open Pacific to the Marianas Islands. Loayza and Cano both died before the Marianas were reached; the fleet put in at Guam [2] to take on water, September 4-10, 1526, under the command of Alonso de Salazar, who died in the Marianas. The expedition continued on to Mindanao and the Moluccas.

Loayza's party picked up and took along a Spaniard, Gonzalo de Vigo, who had jumped ship from Magellan's crew and had lived among the Chamorros for five years. []

Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron, in 1527-29, sailed from Acapulco to the Marianas, striking the Caroline Islands for the first time. [4] From Guam, [5a] Saavedra continued across to the Philippines and then down to Papua. In 1542 (?) Juan Gaetano, also sailing from Mexico, visited Guam in the course of his voyage. [5b]

In 1565, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi landed on Tinian or Guam, [5c] or both. The first Mass in the Marianas Islands was celebrated by the Augustinian fathers with his expedition on January 22, 1565. Heretofore, the Spanish voyages in the Pacific Ocean had been purely exploratory, but in 1565 opens the second period of the history of the Pacific, with the beginnings of Spanish colonization and exploitation following up the explorations and discoveries of the preceding 145 years.

In 1565 the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines was established by Lopez de Legazpi at Cebu (Manila and Cavite were founded, by him also, in 1571). In the same year of 1565, Andres de Urdaneta discovered the northern seaway, or "Urdaneta's passage," in latitude 35°N., where the prevailing westerlies made for comparatively safe and fast eastward crossings. The Spanish galleons from the Philippines to Mexico used this route for the next 250 years. Regularly from 1568 on, the annual Manila galleon, on the outward voyage west from Mexico, crossed the Pacific in about latitude 12°-13°N., directly to Guam, leaving Acapulco in March and reaching the Marianas in June, halting briefly to take on fresh water at Umatac Bay, and continuing west across the Philippine Sea to Luzon. The return voyage was made farther north with no stops, crossing north of the Hawaiian Islands to the southern California or Lower California coast and on down to Acapulco.

For much of that period, English seamen and privateers, beginning in 1587 with Thomas Cavendish, the third circumnavigator of the globe, if not with Drake himself in 1579,followed much the same route across the Pacific to the Marianas, hoping to fall in with the Manila galleon and plundering the Spaniards afloat and ashore all along the coasts of South America and Mexico. [6]

Few, if any, visits by Englishmen followed immediately thereafter, during the rest of the Elizabethan period and the early seventeenth century. At this time, however, the Dutch were expanding their overseas empire, competing with scarcely larger Portugal in the East Indies, a story climaxed with Tasman's circumnavigation of Australia in the 1640's. Dutch visitors to Guam during this period included Oliver Van Noort in 1600, Joris Spilbergen in 1616, and the great Nassau Fleet under the command of Jacob l'Eremite in 1625.

Guam, and the rest of the Marianas Islands, from 1565 on, were, like the Philippines, part of New Spain and ruled by the Viceroy in Mexico, those domain eventually extended from the Mississippi River to Manila, from Yucatan to Nootka Sound. No actual Spanish establishment was founded in the Marianas, however, during first hundred years that the Manila galleon stopped there regularly. Presumably Spanish contacts with the natives from 1568 to 1668 were comparatively slight and limited for the most part to occasional trading at Umatac Bay. To what extent the Chamorros acquired new material objects from the Spaniards during this period is not known.

A single Franciscan priest and a few Spanish soldiers are reported to have stayed about a year on Guam in 1596-97. There is an account of a Spanish ship, Santa Margarita, its crew weakened by illness, being taken and plundered by the natives at Saipan in 1600. Another vessel, Concepcion, en route to Manila, was wrecked off Tinian in 1638, but survivors were, according to report, well treated; two crew members from the East Indies are said to have stayed, and in 1668 a European (? — "a Christian named Pedro," says the original source) was found by the first missionary settlement. A survivor from the Concepcion, he had lived in the southern Marianas (probably on Tinian?) for 30 years.

Actual occupation of Guam and conversion of the Chamorros began with the arrival, from Manila by way of Acapulco, of Father Diego Luis de Sanvitores, S. J., a native of Burgos, accompanied by five other priests [7] and a guard of 33 Spanish soldiers, on June 15, 1668, [8] 147 years after the Marianas were first sighted by Europeans. Promptly the "Christian named Pedro" brought his two-year-old daughter to be baptized. She was christened Mariana, and the islands, hitherto called the Ladrones, were named the Marianas (Garcia's Life of Sanvitores, Madrid, 1683, p. 192).

At first well received, the venerable Father and his companions established their mission at Agana and built a church of palomaria wood. Dedicated to the Dulce Nombre do Maria, this structure was completed in a matter of months and formally opened February 2, 1669. A priests' house was also built. Fr. Medina visited all the settlements of Guam, baptizing 3,000 souls (all children?) in three months. Fr. Casanova went to Rota, Fr. Cardenoso and Fr. Morales to Tinian. Fr. Sanvitores himself remained in Agana (the student or lay brother Lorenzo Bustillo stayed with him), but in October 1668 he visited Saipan, with Fr. Morales from Tinian. All went well for a while.

Difficulties arose, however, the natives resisting conversion and colonization. They objected particularly to baptism of infants. One priest — Fr. Luis de Medina — was killed, and with him his secular companion (a Filipino or possibly a converted Chamorro?) Hipolito de la Cruz, on Saipan in January 1670, having insisted on baptizing a child who there upon died. Fr. Sanvitores himself was martyred on April 2, 1672, at the age of 45, by a Chamorro chieftain whose child he had baptized against the father's will. [9] With him was killed his secular companion or servant, a Filipino. Native resistance was ascribed, and still is, to the influence of a Chinese, called "Choco," living near Merizo, who had been the only survivor of a sampan wrecked on Guam in 1648, and who had attained a position of power or prominence in the southern part of the island.

The rest of the seventeenth century is often described in general or secondary works as a period of continuous fighting, or 23 years of warfare and violent conquest. At the end of the struggle, say these accounts, the population had been reduced — supposedly by Spanish attacks and massacres, and by Chamorro suicides to escape subjugation — from an original total estimated between 50,000 and 100,000 to less than 5,000. All this, or all except the population figures, is a misapprehension or exaggeration. To ascertain extent, or in some cases, this story, I believe, is the result of deliberate or unconscious misrepresentation by anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic writers of English tradition.

The marked reduction in population is apparently genuine: a surprisingly high estimate, not less than 50,000 for the total, and possibly 50,000 on Guam alone, must be accepted; [10] and figures on the native population after 1700 do not exceed 5,000.

The decrease was brought about, however, by the devastating typhoons of 1671 and 1693, and, above all by epidemics of European diseases new to the natives, as happened also in the Americas, as well as by warfare and other direct Spanish action. Rather than continuous fierce combat and large-scale massacres, the true picture evidently would be of intermittent violence during a long period of uncertainty and tension, and gradual Spanish domination. The fighting was clearly sporadic and small-scale, though not without its dramatic episodes, rather than a determined conquest and systematic decimation. The mass suicide business, the noble savage preferring death to loss of freedom, I discount completely as invention of later writers, quite possibly based on a few actual cases of individual Chamorro leaders killing themselves.

In 1671, when the trouble was beginning, there were altogether 31 soldiers on hand, 12 of them Spanish (probably including, or largely, Mexican creoles) and 19 Filipino; some were armed with bows and arrows, others with firearms. At least one cannon is specifically mentioned also. During 1669 Fr. Sanvitores had gone up to Tinian, accompanied by two Spaniards and 9 Filipino soldiers, with 3 muskets and 1 field piece, to break up a civil war on that island. A few more soldiers, and an additional Jesuit priest, [11] arrived in the galleon from Mexico on June 9, 1671. A converted local boy was murdered on the road by other Chamorros that month, and the "war of Guam" gradually began during the early summer of 1671 (there is apparently no record of any punitive expedition to Saipan following the death of Fr. Medina). There were altogether between 70 and 80 killed on Guam, churchmen and garrison, from 1671 to 1684 (only about 30 from 1671 through 1676, then 40 or 50 in the outbreak of July 23, 1684), and 51 others in the other islands. [12] Eleven of the victims were Jesuit missionary priests.

Fighting did not begin fast and hard, it would seem. Only one Spanish death on Guam is recorded for 1671 — Jose de Peralta, "killed in the hills," September. The Spaniards concentrated in Agana, evidently; they stockaded the church and waited. They were attacked in September by about or over 2,000 natives, who were repulsed with no Spanish casualties. The battle was interrupted by the typhoon of September 8, which partly destroyed the church; a small chapel was formed in the ruins, and defended against resumed Chamorro attacks, which continued into October for a total of 140 days, still with no losses to the Spanish.

After this determined attempt to eject the invaders, the Chamorros must have temporarily submitted or at least subsided; and, though practically without evidence for this, I have an idea that the Spaniards moved rather slowly and discreetly. Surprisingly, I have found no reference to punitive action upon the killing of Fr. Sanvitores himself (— either Garcia omits that or I missed it, for at least the individual who struck him down surely would have been taken and executed). His death followed a group of five other killings, all on March 31, 1672, suggestive of a general or coordinated outbreak, apparently localized in the Epau-Tumon vicinity. These five victims were laymen, bore Spanish names, and presumably were soldiers. One was a native of Mexico, one "a Spaniard," the other three not specified, possibly Filipinos? (for reference see Note 12). No further action during the rest of 1672 and all of 1673 is given in notes (not necessarily true of the sources — originals not available, and published translations only hastily reviewed). [13] Three natives from the Marianas were taken to visit Mexico and Madrid in 1671-74.

Trouble began again with "another outbreak" in February 1674, apparently ending a quiet period. A priest and five companions were killed on the road between Umatac and Agat, evidently near Ceti Bay. In June 1674, Captain Damian de Esplana arrived (on the regular galleon from Acapulco); he improved the fortifications of Agana, built two new schools, trails and roads, and new (?) churches at Ritidian, Tarague, and Tepungan. He also led "punitive" expeditions against the natives; an unusual episode was the battle in the water off Tumon, on November 14, 1674, with Spaniards — presumably in armor and on horseback — charging native canoes. No losses to the Spanish force are recorded.

The only item I have for 1675 is the killing of a Jesuit father and two soldiers at Ritidian, on December 9, in the list of 1671-l684 *victims." Another priest was killed in January 1676; during that year Captain Esplana was replaced by Don Francisco do Irrisari y Vinar, the first commander with the title of Governor of the Marianas. In the fall of 1676, the Chamorros, justifiably provoked (it says in my notes; this must be my own summation of a series of incidents, surely not a statement by Garcia or Gobien or even Burney), rose again and attacked Sumay, destroying the mission there and wiping out the garrison (Fr. Monroy, Lt. Gov. Carbajal, and 6 soldiers, all from Mexico, were killed "in the sea before Sumay" on October 6; another soldier was killed on Guam during the month). The natives attacked Agana repeatedly in 1676-77, and were repulsed with heavy losses. The church was rebuilt at a different location during 1676.

For the next several years, 1678-1683, the Spaniards took the initiative vigorously; Governor Salas, 1678-80 and particularly the hard and capable Don Jose de Quiroga (as Governor, and as lieutenant to Governor Sarana) from 1680 into 1683, prosecuted relentlessly a systematic campaign of reduction, destroying Chamorro villages and effectively subduing the obstinate resistance of the people on Guam, with evidently heavy casualties to the natives but no recorded Spanish losses. The survivors were concentrated in towns at Inapsan, Pago (a new foundation), Inarajan, Merizo, Umatac, Agat (also a new mission center, begun in 1680), and Agana. [14] Later 1683, Captain Esplana, here as Governor for the second time, and Quiroga, as his lieutenant, conquered Saipan and Tinian and Rota in a brief campaign.

In the summer of 1684 a sudden revolt of the Chamorros on Guam, led by Antonio Yura, the chief of Apuguan, was temporarily nearly successful — on Sunday, July 23, between 40 and 50 Spanish soldiers were killed in the plaza and streets of Agana, and two Jesuits in the College; another priest, Fr. Teofilo de Angeles, was martyred at Ritidian the following day — but the rising was finally put down. [15]

Most of the remaining people of Guam fled to Rota and other islands, the "conquest" in 1683 probably having been temporary and formal, not implemented by occupation. A visiting Englishman in 1686, the far-wandering William Dampier, R. N., [16] summarizes the uprising: "Not long before we arrived here, the natives rose on the Spaniards to destroy them, and did kill many; but the Governor with his soldiers at length prevailed * * * There were then 3 or 400 [?] Indians on this Island, but now there are not above 100, for all that were in this conspiracy went away to other islands." (William Dampier, A new voyage around the world Vol. I, ch. 10) The figure of only three or four hundred natives may be a mistake for 3,000 or 4,000, which would sound more likely: however, many of the Chamorros of Guam might previously have already judiciously removed themselves to the other southern Marianas.

Another of the English navigators and privateers, Captain Eaton, is said to have visited Guam in 1684; but I have nothing more than his statement on it. Aside from Swan and Dampier's visit in 1686, I have nothing for the years 1685 to 1688; presumably the strife died down. In 1686 the Spanish military force was quite small, according to Dampier, and the missionary staff likewise: "The Spaniards have a small Fort on the west side, near the south end, with 6 guns in it [this is readily identified as Umatac Bay]. There is a Governor, and 20 or 30 Spanish soldiers. There are no more Spaniards on this island, beside 2 or 3 priests."

In a Spanish source, settlements on Guam at about this time are described as follows: "there are seven ports; that of San Antonio which is in the western part near a town which the natives call Hati, in which port there are two good rivers from which to obtain water [this is Ceti Bay; the name still is "Hati" to the local people]. Another port, which was visited by the Dutch for some three months during past years, careening their ships, is half a league from the point that divides the inlet of San Antonio from the southern part and faces a village called in their language [not meaning Dutch but Chamorro] Humatag. It has a good river where the Dutch obtained water [this certainly implies that the Spanish ships, the Manila galleons, did not stop at Umatac at this period but in Apra harbor] * * * [other bays, without settlements or special interest, are described — evidently including, under other names, locations around to and including Inarajan; and in the other direction Seja Bay] continuing northward, near the town of San Ignacio de Agadna, where now are located the principal church and the house of the fathers of the Company [the priests of the Society of Jesus; the Jesuit order is called in Spanish the Compania de Jesus], the best port [i.e., Apra]." [17]

About the only other specific information I have is a statement, also from Sanvitores (by way of Garcia), referring to a slightly earlier period, about 1681, that "the Seminary for Boys today is in very good condition * * * a house of three capacious rooms, with a chapel of our Lady of Guadalupe."

The first severe epidemic in the Marianas was, according to Gobien, in 1688, from the ship which arrived from Mexico in June: the disease as briefly described sounds like influenza of some type, such as devastated populations in Middle America.

Esplana was governor again, 1690-94; and Quiroga again in 1694-95, during which period he again and definitely conquered Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, beginning in October 1694 a major campaign which was climaxed by a final battle on the islet of Aguijan in July 1695, in which the Tinian people, including refugees from Guam, were subdued and brought to Guam. In 1696,the few Chamorro remaining on Saipan and Tinian were rounded up by Governor Jose Medrazo, without resistance; by 1698, although a small number of Chamorros hid out on Rota, the population had been concentrated on Guam, and the other islands were practically uninhabited (and remained so for 120 years, except for continued small-scale occupation of Rota, where there were 234 natives in 1753).

Finally, as the seventeenth century ended, a terrible epidemic of smallpox completed the virtual extermination of the native population of the Marianas Islands.

In the eighteenth century, Guam was evidently a quiet outpost of the great dominion of New Spain, with a Spanish garrison of around 150 soldiers; the population gradually increased, largely by immigration of Filipinos under Spanish auspices. There were 95 mestizos (Spanish or Filipino x Chamorro) in 1726, and 764 in 1753; by 1790 there were 1,825 mixed-bloods. In 1783, the population of Guam totalled 3,231, about half "natives" (largely mestizo) and the other half including 151 soldiers, 818 other Spaniards and creoles (born overseas of Spanish parentage), and 618 Filipinos. In 1786 the low point was reached of 1,318 "natives" on Guam. [18] As early as 1781, natives and other local people were on an equal footing with other Spanish subjects, with full rights of citizenship.

Several English ships visited the Marianas during the eighteenth century. Dampier had been to Guam a second time, in Roebuck, in 1699 (see Note 20); in 1705, Rota was visited by William Funnel, who had been with Dampier. [19] In 1710 Guam was host briefly to an unusual group of travelers, headed by the eminent English privateer Captain Woodes Rogers, who had shortly before taken the 1709 Manila galleon. With him were, among others, William Dampier, his third or fourth visit; [20] Alexander Selkirk, the original of Robinson Crusoe, who had just been picked up on this voyage from his stay on Juan Fernandez Island off the South American coast; and Simon Hatley, the original of the Ancient Mariner, who in 1719 killed an albatross and was presently immortalized for that deed. In 1721 another English navigator, John Clipperton in Success called at Guam and, like some of his predecessors, had a little difficulty with the Spanish Governor.

Another quite different group of visitors is recorded in 1721. Two canoe-loads of Caroline Islanders (15 men, 8 women, and 7 children) arrived from the south and stayed four months on Guam, trading for and accumulating iron objects. [21] Later, there was a supposedly accidental voyage from Yap in the 1760's, and another intentional trading visit from Carolinians is recorded in 1788.

Returning to the parade of noted English pirates, a distinguished visitor to the Marianas in 1742 (no company during the 20 years 1722-1741 is recorded) was George Anson, R.N., on Tinian for several months of that year. [22] Anson described the beauty of island, and recorded and sketched the great latte site near the landing-place (the House of Taga). Tinian was not permanently inhabited at this time, but Anson found — and captured — a Spanish sergeant and a party of "Indians" hunting cattle and jerking beef for the garrison of Guam. There were many wild cattle and an abundance of domestic poultry on Tinian.

Anson describes Guam as "the only settlement (in the Marianas) of the Spaniards; here they keep a governor and garrison, and here the Manila ship generally touches for refreshment in her passage from Acapulco to the Philippines. The Spanish troops emplore, at this island consist of 3 companies of foot, betwixt 40 men each; and", he adds, "this is the principal strength the Governor has to depend on, for he cannot rely on any assistance from the Indian inhabitants, being generally upon ill terms with them, and so apprehensive of them that he has debarred them the use of both firearms and lances * * * the Spaniards on the island of Guam are extremely few, compared to the Indian inhabitants."

Anson stated (1749 edition, p. 338) that the total population of Guam was close to 4,000, of which about 1,000 were in San Ignatio de Agana, where the Governor generally resided. There were, he estimated 13 or 14 additional villages on the island. He referred to the Castle of San Angelo, with only five guns, 8-pounders, near the roadstead where the Manila ship usually anchored (Umatac Bay), and to the Castle of St. Lewis,.4 leagues northeast, with the same armament, protecting a road where anchored a small vessel which arrived every other year from Manila (San Luis de Apra). "And besides these forts, there is a battery of five pieces of cannon on an eminence near the seashore" (the fort on the ridge behind Agana?).

Tinian was also visited by Commodore John Byron, R.N., in 1765; by Captain Samuel Wallis, R.N. in 1767; [23] by Captain Gilbert in 1788, and by Lt. Mortimer in 1789. [24]

Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits from all Spanish dominions in 1768, the propagation of the faith in the Marianas was taken over, beginning in 1769, by the Recollect friars of St. Augustine (under the diocese of Cebu and the Archbishop of Manila).

Other than regular Spanish contacts and English privateers and explorers who paused at Tinian, few Europeans visited the Marianas during the eighteenth century. A French traveler in 1772, Crozet on the Mascarin, referred to Guam as "the only island in the vast extent of the South Sea, sprinkled as it is with innumerable islands, which has a European-built town, a church, fortifications, and a civilised population," and described Agana, the brick battery protecting Apra Harbor (Fort St. Louis, with eight bronze 12-pounders of old pattern), and the 21 small Indian settlements, each village of 5 or 6 families, scattered about the coast, the densely forested interior of the island being uncleared, unoccupied, and uncultivated. The total population is given as only "about 1500 Indians." Cotton mills and salt pans had recently been introduced by Governor Tobias.

The town of Agana had a beautiful church, highly decorated; the Commandant's house, spacious and well-built; barracks and magazine. The former residence of the Jesuits was now occupied by Augustinian friars; the former Jesuit college was not in use. [25]

Another, better-known, French voyager, the scientific explorer La Perouse, visited the northern Marianas in 1786. [26] In general references which mention La Perouse, I have picked up nothing to indicate he visited Guam. The first scientific survey of the southern Marianas was made in 1792 by naturalists of Malaspina's expedition.

Very little information on eighteenth-century Guam appears to be available from Spanish sources. Presumably the archives in Mexico have not been fully exploited for this particular subject. The same is true also for the first half of the nineteenth century; most of the data at hand are provided by outside visitors, Europeans, other than Spanish, and Americans.

The first description comes from the journal of William Haswell, first officer of the Lydia out of Boston (sailed in March 1801 for Manila and Canton, stopped on Guam during January and 21/ February 1802). [27] Haswell mentions the small deer (already protected by law against hunting), wild hogs, and large bats; crops and possessions of the people; "neatly thatched basketwork houses about 12 feet from the ground"; describes Agana as a pleasant town of 6 streets, 500 buildings and 1,800 people, with two forts — one of 4 guns at the landing-place (near Piti), one of 7 guns on the hillside above the town; and gives details on Umatac, Apra Harbor, troops and defenses. The population is estimated at 11,000 inhabitants; "the Governor and four Fryars are the only Spaniards from Old Spain, the others are from Peru, Manila, &c." [28] At least one other American ship touched at Guam early in the century, the Maria of Boston, Captain Samuel Williams, sailing from Manila in 1812 to make a survey of the Carolines.

Guam lost regular contact with the outside world through the Philippines and Mexico about the time of these American visits. The last of the Manila galleons left Acapulco in 1805 (but another general secondary source, Searles in 1936, says that in 1807 the Manila galleon richly laden from Acapulco wrecked and sank in Apra Harbor); the last return voyage from the Philippines to Mexico was in 1811. [29] In 1817, during the revolutionary period in Spanish America,the administrative control of Guam was moved from Mexico to Manila.

At the same time, closer local contacts developed. As mentioned above, a group of Caroline Islanders had made a trading voyage to Guam in 1788. Beginning in 1804, such trips were made regularly each year by Carolinians, assembling a fleet of their outrigger canoes at Lamorek in April, sailing to Guam in five days, trading for iron, and returning to the Carolines in May or June. [30] Canoes such as had formerly been made by the Chamorros were now obtained on Guam in this way. Later, groups of Carolinians stayed and settled in the Marianas, remaining separate from the Chamorros and retaining their distinct language and customs.

A small colony of Hawaiians was established on Saipan by American traders about 1810, but was obliterated, it is said, by the Spaniards, in 1819 (?), the Hawaiians being taken to Guam as slaves. In 1817 and 1818, Tinian and Saipan began to be re-populated by Chamorros and Carolinians from Guam. Rota had already been re-occupied, a parish church having been established on that island by 1817. In 1819 the Filipinos on Guam numbered 1,774; the Spanish group only 965. Most of the population must have been listed as "natives," although no doubt only partially of Chamorro descent and largely mixed with Spanish, Mexican, and Filipino elements.

European visitors during the first part of the nineteenth-century included the Russian expedition sent out by the imperial Chancellor Prince Rmanzoff, [31] headed by Lt. Kotzebue and including the naturalist Chamisso, in the brig Rurik, which visited Guam in 1817; a French traveler, Louis de Freycinet, in 1818; and a French scientific group, including particularly botanists, headed by M. Dumont d'Urville, in the Astrolabe in 1828 and again in 1839 (intended for 1829?? — taken from Searles in the Guam Recorder, 1936, without checking).

Guam was particularly benefitted — perhaps the most since the expulsion in 1769 of the Jesuits who had greatly assisted the development of agriculture on the island — by the administration of Captain Don Francisco Ramon de Villalobos, Governor of the Marianas from September 26, 1831, to October 1, 1837. The many activities of Governor Villalobos included encouragement of commerce, improvement of agriculture, segregation and supporting of lepers, vaccination of the natives, construction of bridges, and establishment of a pottery kiln. In the field of agriculture, Villalobos tried to promote cultivation of coffee and to substitute (!) yams and taro for maize, to increase the acreage of rice and to introduce manila hemp. [32] Haswell in 1802 had said, "Their food is chiefly shellfish and plantains [possibly intending yams rather than bananas?], cocoa-nuts, and a kind of sweet potatoes which they dry and make flour of [taro, or else cassava (manioc): no reference to maize, or to rice]." Haswell also mentions tobacco, and chickens (but specifies no geese, ducks, or turkeys).

A violent hurricane laid waste the island the night of August 10, 1848. There was a severe earthquake on January 25, 1849, which badly damaged churches and government buildings. [33] Not long after, a group of Caroline Islanders arrived at Guam in two ocean-going canoes, asking permission to stay in the Marianas, their home islands having been swept by enormous waves. Small colonies of Carolinians had already been settled in the Marianas, on Saipan and Tinian as well as Guam.

Guam was by this time used occasionally as a penal colony for the Philippines. In 1851 a group of about 50 Filipino convicts were scattered freely over Guam as farmers, by a trustful governor, Don Pablo Perez; they rose in conspiracy to seize the island, were rounded up and sent back to Manila.

In April 1852, another American, Captain Ewer of the Emily Morgan of New Bedford, visited Guam, and later described the island. [34] He encountered several Caroline Island canoes which had just arrived, and he discusses the regular trade, with remarks on the people and the canoes and their cargo. Captain Ewer describer briefly Umatac, Apra, and Agana.

In 1855 the parish on Rota was re-established, and a mission was established on Saipan by the Augustinians to attempt conversion of the Caroline Islanders colony there. About this time there were 349 people on Rota, in one town of two streets intersecting at a little plaza. [35] The population of the Marianas was considerably reduced by a smallpox epidemic in 1856, [36] and more than 1,000 Carolinians were brought in to replace losses.

There was a United States consul at Guam by 1855 — Captain Samuel J. Masters, formerly Police Magistrate of Lahaina in the Hawaiian Islands — accompanied by his secretary. The hospital physician was an American. A ship chandlery had been established at Guam by Messrs. Thomas Spencer & Co. There were four other foreigners resident, all Englishmen. No foreigner was allowed to live or stay in the Marianas without specific permission obtained from the Governor-General of the Philippine Islands at Manila. [37] The only previous reference noted to a foreigner resident on Guam is that when the Russian expedition, the Rurik, arrived it was met by a young Englishman, Robert Wilson, who was the Spanish government pilot at Agana. [38]

Another very active governor of the Marianas was Don Felipe de la Corte y Ruano Calderon, 1855-1860, whose interests ranged from attempting (unsuccessfully) the introduction of sugar cane on Guam as a commercial crop to writing a general history and description of the islands. [39]

In 1884,the Governor was assassinated by a native soldier as the first step in an otherwise completely unsuccessful plot of a group of 40 soldiers to seize the island. Four of the conspirators were executed, shot on the beach at Agana, on April 10, 1885.

In 1896, a break-out attempt by Tagalog prisoners was suppressed; 80 of the Filipinos were killed in the prison. The garrison of Guam at this period consisted of one artillery company of 60 officers and men.

At the sudden end of the Spanish period in 1898, the total "native" population had risen to about 9,000 on Guam, and slightly over 1,000 on Saipan, Tinian, and Rota; there was one small colony of Carolinians on Guam, in Tumoning (in 1901; pressed by the new American administration to wear clothes, they moved up to Saipan). [40]

On June 20-21, 1898, to the considerable surprise of the Spanish governor, Guam was occupied by the United States Navy; the treaty of December 10, 1898, transferred Guam as well as the Philippines to the United States. The rest of the Marianas and the Carolines (including Yap and Palau) were promptly purchased from Spain by expanding Imperial Germany, which had already occupied the Marshall Islands in 1885.

At this time, in 1899, the Augustinian friars were succeeded by Capuchin fathers; Guam still is a "missionary diocese" or vicariate, equivalent of a missionary province in old New Spain, administered by a titular bishop who is actually a Vicar Apostolic (at present the Most Reverend Apollinaris Baumgartner, O.F.M. Cap., Bishop of Joppa), and is not under the Archdiocese of Manila nor that of Hawaii.

For the next 43 years, Guam was controlled by the United States and administered by the Navy. The other Marianas, like the Carolines and Marshalls, were controlled by Germany from 1899 until the First World War, when Japan seized all of German Micronesia; after the war, in 1919, these islands (except Guam) were assigned to Japan as a mandated territory under the League of Nations.

In November 1914, as the Japanese moved in, S. M. S. Kormoran of the Imperial German Navy, was interned at Guam (a belligerent's vessel in a then neutral port) and rested quietly in Apra Harbor for 2-1/2 years; the German Navy provided a splendid choir for Christmas services on Guam in 1915 and/or 1916. The first direct contact with enemy forces, consequently, when the United States entered the war on April 8, 1917, was a formal surrender demand on the commanding officer of the Kormoran by the United States Navy commandant and Governor of Guam. As the American lieutenant bearing the message left the vessel, she began to go down, scuttled rather than surrendered, in the honorable tradition of the German Navy; the crew was collected, now as prisoners of war instead of internees, except for a half-dozen who died and who were buried with full military honors in the United States Naval Cemetery on Guam.

Guam was primarily a United States naval base until 1931, when, as part of the then current disarmament program, the fortifications were dismantled and guns removed, the Marines withdrawn, and the base abandoned; but the island remained under naval government until after the next war.

In December 1941, the coordinated explosion of rapid Japanese attack over the Pacific area in fast, hard blows against United States forward positions included, along with the strike at Pearl Harbor, the assault on Wake Island, and the destruction of United States air strength in the Philippines, the seizure on December 11 of virtually defenseless Guam, which remained under Japanese occupation for two and a half years.

1. The usual statement in general works and many secondary sources, especially later ones, is simply "Magellan discovered Guam" — Umatac Bay is a logical point; Talafofo Bay has also been suggested. Actually, there is no absolute certainty as to which of the southern Marianas was Magellan's landfall, much less the exact spot. The narrative of the voyage by Pigafetta says merely that in latitude 12°N., longitude 1466°, on Wednesday, March 6, "scoprimmo a maestro una piccola isola, e due altre a garbino. Una era piu alta e piu grande delle altre due [we discovered to the northwest a small island, and two others to the southwest. One was higher and bigger than the other two.]" (a second Italian version in 1536, from the French translation of 1525, or else possibly from the English translation of the same year by Richard Wren as "A briefe declaration of of navigation made abowte the Worlde" — the Italian original having been lost: the edition checked in this investigation is that of 1800 printed in Milan, Primo Viaggio intorno al Globo Terracgueo fatta del Cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta sulla squadra del Capit. Magaglianes negli anni 1519-1522, ora pubblicato per la prima volta, tratto da un Codice MS. della Biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano e corredato di note da Carlo Amoretti, Milano, 1800 A.D.).

The derrotro of Francisco Albo or Alvaro, pilot, is quoted as follows: "On the 6th to west in 13°. This day we saw land and went to it, and there were two islands, which were not very large, and when we came between them we turned to the southwest and left one on the northwest" (from compilation of Magellan documents by Lord Stanley, Hakluyt Society, 1874; the original not seen — cited "Add. MS British Museum 17621").

As early as 1742 the applicability of these statements to islands other than Guam was recognized by Lord Anson "These islands were discovered by Magellan in the year 1521; and from the account given of the two he first fell in with, it should seem that they were those of Saypan and Tinian" (A Voyage Around the World in the Years 1740-44, by George Anson, * * * compiled from his papers and materials Richard Walter, London, 5th ed., 1749, p. 337). The all-too-brief statements do sound rather like going between Saipan, with its greater size and high mountain, and Tinian, and swinging around Tinian, perhaps to a point near the present harbor, Aguijan being recognized as a separate, third, island.

Amoretti nevertheless says Guam, in his notes in the first printed edition (Milan, 1800) of Pigafetta (pp. 49-50). The most logical argument for Guam so far encountered is in F. H. H. Guillemard, Ferdinand Magellan, Liverpool, 1891, to the effect that Rota's "high peak" (sic) came in view first, then Guam was sighted, and recognized as larger; that as for the statement from Alvo quoted in translation above, which actually is "y como fuimos en medio dellas" in the original, according to Guillemard, "This does not at all prove that the ships passed between the two islands, but rather the contrary" — that, being equally near the much larger one, they swung southwestward toward Guam, leaving Rota to the northwest.

Fuller, more detailed, analysis might settle the point; for the present it must be left as undetermined.

2. Guam is specified for Salazar in secondary works, as in the case of Magellan; I have not seen primary sources on the Loayza expedition. Burney's compilation says they made the two southernmost of the Ladrones, in 13° and 12° N. latitude, but that Vigo came to them from Rota: perhaps meaning as they stood offshore. (Capt. James Burney, R.N., A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea, London, 1803).

3. Burney, 1803, says that "To the great surprise of the Spaniards there came to them from the island named Borta one of their own countrymen, Goncalo de Vigo, a native of Galicia, who acknowledged that he had sailed from Spain in the fleet of Magahaes and had deserted from the Trinidad when Espinosa stopped at one of the islands to the north [i.e., Tinian or Saipan?]" in his return to the Moluccas after his ineffectual attempt to return to New Spain (from Indonesia after Magellan's death), and that two others had so jumped ship, but had been killed.

A fascinating historical novel was based on the story of Gonzalo de Vigo (but has the entire action go on around Talafofo Bay, and has him picked up by Saavedra a few years later): Death Sails with Magellan, Charles Ford, New York (Random House), 1937.

4. Ulithi and Kusaie, it is reported. Salazar is said to have discovered one of the Marshalls in 1526, after the deaths of Loayza and Cano. Palau and Yap, and perhaps others of the Carolines, were found by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1542-43, and by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565, secondary sources state. There is also "the grim story on the south coast of Ponape of iron men who came up out of the sea and fought with the men of Kiti until overwhelmed with slingstones and spear thrusts."

This might, I suppose, derive from one or both of the two Ships of Saavedra's expedition known to have been lost and presumed to have been wrecked in 1527 or 1528, which also has been assumed, and fairly widely believed, to be the basis of the Hawaiian tradition of a Spanish (?) vessel which crashed near Honaunau on the Kona coast of the big island of Hawaii. Saavedra's outfit is also credited with having "probably" discovered islands in the Marshalls. Alvaro de Mendana is also listed as a discoverer of the Marshall Islands in 1567 (as well as having discovered the Solomons in 1568, and the Ellice Islands; then on his second voyage, in 1595, Mendana discovered the Marquesas and the Santa Cruz Islands). Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, one of Mendana's captains, is listed as having discovered Ngatik, south of Ponape, in 1595 (later, Quiros, on his voyage of 1606, discovered Tahiti and the New Hebrides; one of Quiros' captains, Luis Vaez de Torres, in 1606 sailed through the strait, since named for him, between Australia and New Guinea, both of which had been sighted by Portuguese navigators between 1510 and 1530).

5. For both Saavedra (1527-29) and Gaetano (1542?), I am simply taking the statement from secondary or general sources without checking original narratives at all; the same for Lopez de Legazpi, although I have a little more information noted. Even the date of Gaetano's expedition apparently is uncertain, occasionally given as 1553 or 1555 instead of 1542. Gaetano is thought to have discovered the Hawaiian Islands; but this, as well as the wreck of one of Saavedra's ships, is highly uncertain, to say the least. See, among others, J. C. Beaglehole, The Exploration of the Pacific, London, 1947.

6. The regular Manila treasure galleon was taken three times, with a loss to the Spaniards of about $5,000,000: by Cavendish off Cape San Lucas in 1587, by Woodes Rogers (see below) in 1709, and by Anson (see below) in 1742, according to the Abbe Raynal, A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trades of the Europeans in the East and West Indies London, 1788 (A translation by J. W. Justamond, F.R.S., published by Strahan and Cadell).

The enormous loot brought in by Francis Drake from his treat voyage — the second circumnavigation of the world — when he arrived at Plymouth on or about September 26, 1580, for which he presently was knighted by Elizabeth aboard the Golden Hind at Deptford, the fortune which made possible the rise of England to world power (see W.P. Webb, "Windfalls of the Frontier," Harper's November 1951) came from other Spanish sources, along the west coasts of America from Chile to California.

7. Actually four priests and a student friar not yet ordained: Fr. Tomas de Cardenoso, who had come from Manila with Fr. Sanvitores, and from among those in Acapulco en route to the Philippines — Fr. Luis de Medina, leader of that entire group, Fr. Pedro de Casanova, Fr. Luis de Morales, and Brother Lorenzo Bustillo — p. 189, Father Francisco Garcia, S.J., Vida y martyrio del Venerable Padre Diego Luis de Sanvitores, Madrid, 1683 (original not seen; translation published in the Guam Recorder, September 1936 July 1939).

8. The date given by Safford (summary of history in Useful Plants of Guam is March 3. Ordinarily the Manila galleon left Mexico only in March and reached Guam and the Philippines during June. The basic source, Garcia's Life of Sanvitores (cited above), says they sailed at last from Acapulco only on March 23 (page 189) and sighted "Zarpana" (an old name for Rota) on June 15, then soon saw Guan (sic; usually Guan or Guahan in the older, Spanish writings), and arrived off Guam at nightfall (page 191). This last is interesting in connection with Guillemard's s theory on Magellan's landfall, outlined in Note 1 above.

9. On Tumon Bay, perhaps not very far from the spot where stands a monument to his memory, dedicated in January 1940, accompanied by a small chapel, at the northeast end of Tumon Beach.

10. The figure of 50,000 people was given by Fr. Sanvitores himself, for Guam alone, and 40,000 for the other islands; and one may suspect a pious exaggeration, to emphasize the size of the problem and the glory of the achievement (and perhaps help justify the estimates for the next fiscal year), as has happened elsewhere with ardent missionary leaders. But later writers, from Kotzebue in 1821 to Oliver in 1951, have accepted or worked out similar figures. A reconstruction by Freycinet in 1829 (Thompson, 1947, p. 33) gave a total of 73,000 — Guam 35,000; Rota 8,000; Tinian 7,000; Saipan 11,000; the northern Marianas 12,000. Another early statement (Tobias, governor 1771-74 — Thompson, loc. cit. selects 50,000 the total of natives on all the southern Marianas at the time of Spanish arrival. Probably all these are based on the same single original source, Fr. Sanvitores. He also speaks of 180 settlements 1668, those on the coast being of 50 to 150 houses each: say, 18,000 or so dwellings and at least 3 individuals to a family well over 50,000 people!

11. Actually four new friars, but three leaving at the same time; a net gain of one. Fathers Francisco Esquerra, Francisco Solano, Alonso Lopez, and Diego de Noriega came in; but Frs. Casanova and Morales and Lorenzo Bustillo were sent on to the Philippines on the same ship.

12. According to a document, "Victims sacrificed by the natives of the Marianas Islands because of their propagation of the Holy Catholic faith among them," translation published in the Guam Recorder, April 1926, without giving source and identification; it sounds authentic and corresponds with other data.

13. Unless otherwise noted, the discussion of the period 1668-1684 is based on Garcia's Sanvitores (full citation in Note 7 above) and on Charles Le Gobien, Histoire des isles Marianes nouvellement converties a la religion chrestienne et de la mortglorieuse des premiers missionnaires qui y ont preche lafoy, Paris, 1700. Information given actually is drawn largely from quotation, and paraphrases, in later works, or partial published translations; I have not used the original of either of these basic source versions (Gobien's work being also based on Garcia's Sanvitores, with added notes on later developments of 1684 into the 1690's; Burney's work of 1803, cited above in Note 2, draws extensively on Gobien).

14. This is another of numerous parallels to another former province of New Spain: the Indians of New Mexico were in some instances collected into a few new or selected mission settlements for better control.

15. Consequently there must have been a good many troops on Guam by 1684, to suppress the rebellion promptly after 40 or 50 casualties. I have encountered no figures on reinforcements after 1671; but compare Dampier's 1686 total of only 20 or 30 soldiers.

16. A true rover; William Dampier was born in Somersetshire in 1652, by the age of 20 had been to Newfoundland and the East Indies in 1674-77 was on Jamaica and on expeditions to the Gulf of Campeche; back in England 1678, returned to Jamaica 1679 and joined buccaneers attacking Darien; raiding the Peruvian coast in 1680; in 1683 sailed with a Captain Cook from Virginia to the Guinea coast of Africa and around Care Horn to raid the Pacific coasts of South America and, for about a year, with other privateers, the west coast of New Spain, then with Captain Swan on up to southern California and finally across the Pacific, March 31-May 20, 1686, to Guam. More on him later.

17. Garcia, Sanvitores, transl. in Guam Recorder, XIV:19, 1937.

18. These population figures taken mostly from Thompson, 1947, pp. 35-36 (derived from several original sources).

19. No details at hand. The mention of Funnel's visit, and other data, from P. J. Searles, "Guam after the Spanish conquest," Guam Recorder, XII:297-299 and 32-326, 1936.

20. Spending the second half of 1686 in the Philippines, thence to China and the Moluccas and staying awhile in the Nicobars and Sumatra, Dampier got back to England in 1691, and sailed in 1692 around the Cape of Good Hope to Australia and the Pacific Islands (Melanesia, Guam and the Philippines), started back in May 1700 from Timor, foundered off Ascension in mid-Atlantic in February 1701, was picked up there in April and conveyed home; 1703-07 commanded two privateers in the South Seas (and may have called at Guam); sailed as a pilot with Woodes Rogers 1708-1711; died in — of all places — London in 1715. Dampier was, fortunately, literate and a good observer; his narratives of voyages were published in London, several editions, 1699, 1709, 1729, etc.

21. Described by Father Juan Antonio Cantova in a letter dated at Agana, March 22, 1722, published in Lettres Edifiantes * * *, Vol. XVIII, given (in full?) by Burney, 1803 (op. cit.) and reprinted in the Guam Recorder for September 1928; summarized and discussed in the introduction of George Keate, An Account of the Pelew Islands * * *, London, 1788 (Second Edition), pp. x-xi. Father Cantova was aroused by the prospect of new souls to conquer, visited the hitherto unproselyted Carolines in 1722 and again in 1731, on which return visit he was killed by the natives.

22. Anson left England in September 1740, and came around to the west coast of Mexico by March 1742, when the annual Manila galleon was due to sail; the Spaniards spotted him lying in wait off Acapulco and cancelled the trip for that year. Anson finally left the coast of America on May 6, crossed the Pacific, and raised the Marianas in August — first the northern islands, then Saipan and Tinian and Aguijan. He laid up on Tinian for several months, until his men were in good health, and then continued westward to the South China coast, but in June 1743 returned as far as the northern tip of the Philippines in time to pickoff the Manila galleon after all, with 1,000,000 pounds in gold and silver. A Voyage Round the World in the Years MDCCXL, I, II, III, IV, by George Anson, Esq.; Now Lord Anson, Commander in Chief of a Squadron of His Majesty's Ships Sent Upon an Expedition to the South-Seas. Compiled from his papers and materials, by Richard Walter, M.A., Chaplain of His Majesty's Ship the Centurion in that Expedition. The Fifth Edition. printed for the Author; by John and Paul Knapton, in Ludgate Street. MDCCXLIX.

23. John Hawkesworth, L.L.D., An account of the Voyages undertaken by the order of his present Majesty, for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere and successively performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Carteret, Captain Wallis and Captain Cook in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour, Drawn up from the journals which were kept by the several commanders and from the papers of Sir Joseph Banks, Bart, published in London, 1773, and 1785, and by G. Mudie, Edinburgh, 1789.

Byron had left England in June 1764; coming through the Straits of Magellan in February, he visited islands in the Thamotus and Gilberts, continued westward, and sighted Saipan and Tinian and Aguijan on July 28, 1765. Like Anson, he spent the summer on Tinian, but he did not see any basis for Anson's rather enthusiastic description of the island. Byron found huts left by the Spaniards and Indians, but none of the foraging parties was there yet this year. His men hunted wild hogs and cattle and poultry; it is remarked that Tinian "produces cotton and indigo in abundance." Byron sailed from Tinian on October 1 and went on around the world.

Captain Wallis halted more briefly. Having sailed, accompanying Carteret, in August 1766, he visited the Tuamotus and Tahiti, and then the Marianas, while Carteret went on to the Solomons and Bismarcks. Wallis stopped on Tinian only September 19-October 16, 1767.

24. Searles, loc. cit. (reference, Note 19).

25. Source not given in my notes probably I picked it up in the Guam Recorder with the original source not given.

26. With an expedition of two frigates, La Perouse sailed from Brest in August 1785, visited Madeira and Teneriffe, the west coast of South America, Easter Island and Hawaii, the west coast of North America, reached the Marianas in December 1786, and continued thence to Japan, China, and the southwest Pacific: he sent his journal home to France from Botany Bay, after leaving which, in 1788, he was never heard of again.

27. North American trade with China had developed rapidly, from small beginnings in 1784-46 — 23 American vessels to Canton in 1800 and 36 in 1801 (C. C. Stelle, "American trade in opium to China prior to 1820," Pacific Historical Review IX:425-444, No. 4, December 1940). The trade to China motivated American exploration to the Pacific Northwest, beginning with Lewis and Clark, and led to the American settlement and eventual annexation of the Oregon country (R. G. Cleland, "Asiatic trade and the American occupation of the the Pacific coast," Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1914, I:281-289, Washington, D.C., 1916).

That is to say — just as the Spanish discovery and colonization of the Marianas Islands form part of the history of New Spain, along with Spanish expansion from Mexico northward to New Mexico and, eventually, into Texas and California — Mr. Haswell is not an isolated phenomenon, not a mere chance visitor, but rather, like the first American traders and far-trappers in the Southwest and the colonists of Texas, is a representative of the westward expansion of the United States and a precursor of American control.

28. Haswell's journal, the unpublished (so far as I know) original of which is in the Essex Institute Library at Salem, Massachusetts, quoted in the Guam Recorder for September and October 1925.

29. "The last galleon to bring Manila cargo to Acapulco reached that port in 1811" — Richard H. Dillon, "The last plan to seize the Manila galleon," Pacific Historical Review XX:123-125, No. 2, May 1951.

30. Kotzebue, Chamisso, and others, A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Straits for the purpose of exploring a Northeast Passage, undertaken in the years 1815-1818, * * * in the ship Rurick, under Lt. in the Imperial Russian Navy Otto von Kotzebue, transl. by H. E. Lloyd, 3 vols., London, 1821.

31 Again, this is not a chance or unique occurrence, part of a larger story. At just this time Imperial Russia was actively exploring the Pacific Ocean area, from Alaska to the Antarctic, inclusive, and establishing outposts as far out from Russian-held Alaska as northern California and the Hawaiian Islands: see my "Region Three Anthropological Notes" No. 96, November 1949, and several references published since then, such as Hector Chevigny, Lord of Alaska — the story of Baranov and the Russian Adventure, Portland, Oregon (Binfords & Mort), 1951; The Russians in Hawaii, Bulletin No. 38 of the University of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1951.

32. Other crops also being raised on Guam in the 1830's were sweet potatoes, pineapples, papayas, tobacco, red peppers, tomatoes, squashes, peanuts [note that all of these so far, and corn among those mentioned in the text, are American plants], watermelons, muskmelons, eggplant, citrus fruits, tamarind, and turmeric. I believe all this, on Villalobos and plants, comes from De la Corte Calderon, op. cit. infra.

33. As described in the diary of Fr. Aniseto; see below and under specific historic sites and buildings (Agana, Pago, Umatac).

34. Life and Adventures in the South Pacific, 1861 — partially reproduced in the Guam Recorder, June-September 1925.

35. According to Governor de la Corte, cited below.

Described in the diary of Fr. Aniceto de Ibanez del Carmen; as given in the Guam Recorder (Vol. III), August 1926. Brought in March by a passenger from the American schooner Frost, the epidemic killed 3,644 on Guam, mostly Chamorros, in nine months.

37. From a "historical sketch" in The Friend, published at Honolulu in the 1850's, reprinted or quoted in the Guam Recorder.

38. Kotzebue, op. cit.

39. Felipe de la Corte y Ruano Calderon, A history of the Marianas Islands from the time of the arrival of the Spaniards to the 5th of May 1870 (a translation by Gertrude (Mrs. H. G.) Hornbostel mimeographed in 1937); the major source utilized by later writers.

40. In 1902 the population of Saipan included 967 Chamorros and 621 Carolinians, that of Tinian, 36 Chamorros and 59 Carolinians: Georg Fritz, "Die Chamorro," Ethnologisches Notizblatt III-3, Berlin, 1904.