Alaska Subsistence A National Park Service Management History

Notes — Chapter 2

¹ Raymond Fredric Dasmann, "National Parks, Nature Conservation, and 'Future Primitive'," unpub. paper presented at the South Pacific Conference on National Parks, Wellington, N.Z., February 24-27, 1975, in Theodor R. Swem Collection, Conservation Library, Western History Collection, Denver Public Library. Also see Philip Burnham, Indian Country, God's Country; Native Americans and the National Parks (Covelo, Calif., Island Press, 2000), 15-16, 325; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, third edition (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1982), 100-01, 350; and Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks; A History (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1997), 293.

² Robert H. Keller and Michael F. Turek, American Indians and National Parks (Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 1998), 19.

³ Mark David Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness; Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks (New York, Oxford Univ. Press, 1999), 42-43; David Rains Wallace, Yellowstone, a Natural and Human History, Official National Park Handbook (Harpers Ferry, WV, NPS, c. 1999), 40-41.

⁴ Lary M. Dilsaver, ed., America's National Park System; the Critical Documents (Lanham, Md.; Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), 28-29.

⁵ Wallace, Yellowstone, a Natural and Human History, 65; Philip Burnham, Indian Country, God's Country; Native Americans and the National Parks (Covelo, CA, Island Press, 2000), 24-25. Also see Timothy Rawson, Changing Tracks; Predators and Politics in Mt. McKinley National Park (Fairbanks, Univ. of Alaska Press, 2001), 58.

⁶ Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 55-58; Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 23-24; Wallace, Yellowstone, a Natural and Human History, 41, 46.

⁷ Dilsaver, ed., America's National Park System, 36; Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 24.

⁸ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 20-22; Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 102, 106-13. Muir, who admitted that he knew little about the valley's Native residents, remarked that "the worst thing about them is their uncleanliness" but he quickly added that "nothing truly wild is unclean." Burnham, Indian Country, God's Country, 20-21.

⁹ This tribe is now known as the Yakamas.

¹⁰ Theodore Catton, Wonderland; An Administrative History of Mount Rainier National Park (Seattle, NPS, May 1996), 14-20; Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 25-26.

¹¹ Keller and Turek, American Indians and the National Parks, 232-33.

¹² Ibid., 27. The quote is from John C. Miles's Guardians of the Parks (Washington, Taylor and Francis, 1995), 1.

¹³ Keller and Turek, American Indians and the National Parks, 28, 232. The quotes are from Albright's Oh, Ranger! (Palo Alto, Stanford University Press, 1928), 81-96.

¹⁴ Dilsaver, ed., America's National Park System, 48-50, 62-65. In 1925, Interior Secretary Hubert Work issued a revised Statement of National Park Policy, which reiterated the prohibition toward hunting in both parks and monuments. The single exception to the prohibition described in 1925 was the case of Mount McKinley National Park, which is discussed in Chapter 3.

¹⁵ Keller and Turek, American Indians and the National Parks, 233.

¹⁶ Ibid., 26-27.

¹⁷ Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 77-83; Keller and Turek, American Indians and the National Parks, 43-50.

¹⁸ Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 88-96; Keller and Turek, American Indians and the National Parks, 50-61; Christopher S. Ashby, The Blackfeet Agreement of 1895 and Glacier National Park: A Case History, unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Montana, 1985, Chapter 5.

¹⁹ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 131-36, 138-39, 157.

²⁰ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 136-37, 140, 157, 164; Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 135.

²¹ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 31-38.

²² Ibid., 39-41.

²³ Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 134.

²⁴ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 93-94; Evangeline Atwood and Robert N. DeArmond, comp., Who's Who in Alaskan Politics (Portland, Binford and Mort, 1977), 106. Atwood's biography of the controversial leader is Frontier Politics; Alaska's James Wickersham (Portland, Binford and Mort), 1979.

²⁵ Keller and Turek (p. 122) noted that the Olympic's enabling legislation, H.R. 10024, provided that "nothing herein shall affect any valid existing claim ... nor the rights reserved by treaty to the Indians of any tribes."

²⁶ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 91, 99, 107-08, 122-23, 127-28. As noted on p. 122, Natives were apparently no more guilty of occasional poaching than non-Natives.

²⁷ Ibid., 219-21.

²⁸ Ibid., 221-22.

²⁹ Ibid., 225. The use of the term "subsistence" is unusual at such an early date; as noted in a Chapter 4 endnote, subsistence as commonly used today was not applied in Alaska until 1969, when Congress was debating the proposed Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.

³⁰ Ibid., 225-26.

³¹ Ibid., 227-31; Devi Sharp interview, August 7, 2001.

³² Tim Cochrane (Supt. GRPO) to author, email, February 12 and 13, 2002; Ron Cockrell, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota: An Administrative History (Omaha, NPS, 1983), 1, 3-5.

³³ Code of Federal Regulations (1938), Title 36, Sections 2.2(a) and 2.8(a). Nearly identical language appeared in the 1943 CFR, sections 2.2(a) and 2.9(a).

³⁴ One manifestation of the change in attitude between Indians and the federal government was a proposal by Lakota Sioux writer Iktomi Lila Sica for the creation of national "Indian-wild life sanctuaries" that would encompass lands surrounding Yellowstone, Glacier, and Wind Cave national parks as well as Badlands National Monument. These "wilderness area[s] for Indians and wild life" were a throwback to ideas espoused by George Catlin a century before, and more recently to Black Elk, a contemporary Sioux leader. Congress did not seriously consider this to be a "forcefully stated protest" (as quoted by historian Mark Spence), though it served "as a strong counterpoint to more popular concerns about wilderness preservation and management." Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 134.

³⁵ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 187-91, 194, 207, 211.

³⁶ Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks; a History (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1997), 259-60; Frederic H. Wagner, et al., Wildlife Policies in the U.S. National Parks (Washington, D.C., Island Press, 1995), 82; Ries Collier email, July 22, 1998.

³⁷ Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 72-75, 139, 180, 196-200; Dilsaver, America's National Park System, 87-88. As Barry Mackintosh noted in The National Parks: Shaping the System (Washington, NPS, 1985), pp. 62-63, national recreation areas were technically excluded from the National Park System because of fears that they would degrade park standards. This exclusion was overcome by a 1968 Congressional directive.

³⁸ Code of Federal Regulations (1938), Title 36, Section 2.9(a) and Section 2.10(b) and (h).

³⁹ See, for example, 36 CFR (1943), Title 36, Section 7.36(a). In 1992, Fort Jefferson National Monument was renamed Dry Tortugas National Park.

⁴⁰ Gary Somers interview, July 23, 1998; G. Bryan Harry, interview by Sande Faulkner, February 10, 1995; 36 CFR (1943), Section 7:25(d); 36 CFR (1988), Section 7:25(a)(3). The 1938 act, and the subsequent regulations, did not define the term "Native Hawaiian," and they were also silent on how to define "residents of the Kalapana extension area." Enforcing these provisions brought headaches to NPS officials. One problem was overcome, many years later, when a "Native Hawaiian" was defined as "any descendent of not less than one-half part of the blood of the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778." The problem of how to precisely define a Kalapana resident has still not been solved; it became murkier, in fact, in 1990, when Kalapana's population was forced to flee in the face of an oncoming lava flow.

⁴¹ Ries Collier email, July 22, 1998.

⁴² Lance Hatten email, July 21 and 22, 1998.

⁴³ Code of Federal Regulations (1938), Title 36, sections 2.2(a) and (d).

⁴⁴ 36 CFR (1943), Title 36, sections 2.2(e); also see sections 2.2(a) and 2.15.

⁴⁵ 36 CFR (1967), Section 2.20 (a)(1) and (2).

⁴⁶ Code of Federal Regulations (1938), Title 36, Section 2.2(f); 36 CFR (1943), Title 36, Sections 2.2(d); Ron Nagata email, November 12, 1999.

⁴⁷ Email from Marianne Mills, July 21, 1998 and Jennie Vasarhelyi, July 22, 1998.

⁴⁸ Blair Davenport email, July 22, 1998.

⁴⁹ Email from Gary Cummins, July 21, 1998; Doug Brown, July 21, 1998; and Helen Fairley, August 3, 1998.

⁵⁰ Fred Bunch email, July 23 and August 6, 1998.

⁵¹ Janet Rock email, November 4, 1999.

⁵² Email from G. Frank Williss, July 15, 1998; Karren Brown, July 20, 1998; and William Wellman, July 23, 1998.

⁵³ Jeff Connor email, July 23, 1998.

⁵⁴ Email from G. Frank Williss, July 15, 1998; William Wellman, July 23, 1998; and Alexa Roberts, August 21, 1998.

⁵⁵ Email from Mary Blasing, July 23, 1998 and Helen Fairley, August 3, 1998.

⁵⁶ Craig Bates email, August 10, 1998.

⁵⁷ Fred Bunch email, August 6, 1998.

⁵⁸ Email from Chris Judson, July 21, 1998 and Jeff Connor, July 23, 1998.

⁵⁹ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 13, 29; NPS, The National Parks: Index 1997-1999 (Washington, NPS, 1997), 43, 59, 73, 92.

⁶⁰ NPS, The National Parks: Index 1997-1999, 22.

⁶¹ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 29.

⁶² Ibid., 6-14.

⁶³ Ted Birkedal interview, November 2, 1999; Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 234.

⁶⁴ John E. Cook interview, April 18, 2001; John E. Cook to author, email, May 17, 2001.

⁶⁵ Just a year later, this policy was superceded by the NPS Management Policies (December 1988), in which Native American issues and concerns were included in numerous parts of the agency's overall policies. This policy, in turn, has been superceded by Management Policies 2001, published by the agency in December 2000.

⁶⁶ Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, 234; Ted Birkedal interview, November 2, 1999.

⁶⁷ Mackintosh, The National Parks: Shaping the System, 62, 68-71, 76-78.

⁶⁸ Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 135; Memorandum of Agreement between Oglala Sioux and NPS, January 2, 1976, in Sande Anderson files, AKSO; Marianne Mills email, July 21, 1998.

⁶⁹ Email from Karen Rogal, July 21, 1998 and Alexa Roberts, July 21, 1998.

⁷⁰ David Louter, Contested Terrain; North Cascades National Park Service Complex, An Administrative History (Seattle, NPS, 1998), 52-53, 137; David Louter email, July 21 and July 22, 1998.

⁷¹ Sara Koenig email, July 22, 1998.

⁷² Jean Rodeck email, July 23, 1998.

⁷³ Email from Julie Athman, July 20, 1998 and Jim Benedict, July 23, 1998.

⁷⁴ An informal query submitted to NPS interpretive specialists revealed that a number of non-Alaskan park units that were established after 1972 support subsistence activities, among them El Malpais NM (N.M.), Great Basin NP (Nev.), the Barataria Unit of Jean Lafitte NHP and Preserve (La.), Kalaupapa NHP (Hawaii), NP of American Samoa, and New River Gorge NR (W.V.).

⁷⁵ As evidence of this trend, Yosemite National Park and the American Indian Council of Mariposa County, in the fall of 1997, signed a Memorandum of Understanding about the use of the park for various "traditional" activities; several NPS units in southern Utah have recently adopted an MOU with the Southern Paiutes to formalize subsistence and other traditional activities that occur on NPS lands; the Blackfeet now have a good working relationship with Glacier National Park officials; and in February 1999, the Interior Department struck a deal with the Timbesha Shoshone to manage lands in and around Death Valley National Park. Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness, 137-39; Craig Bates email, August 10, 1998; Lee Kreutzer email, August 12, 1998; and Anchorage Daily News, February 26, 1999, B-3.