NORTH CASCADES Contested Terrain North Cascades National Park Service Complex: An Administrative History

¹Herman F. Ulrichs, "The Cascade Range in Northern Washington State," Sierra Club Bulletin 22 (February 1937); 72.

²Today's Columbia Cascades Support Office.

¹Gretchen Luxenberg, Historic Resource Study: North Cascades National Park Service Complex (Seattle: National Park Service, 1986), 7-62, 173-263.

²Luxenberg, Historic Resource Study, 63-171.

³Luxenberg, 265-302.

⁴Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).

⁵Luxenberg. See also Robert Byrd, ed. Lake Chelan in the 1890s (Stehekin: Robert Byrd, 1972).

⁶"A Great National Park," Chelan Falls Leader, February 11, 1892.

⁷"A Park Not Wanted," Spokesman Review, February 19, 1892.

⁸Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959). Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981).

⁹Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 107-115, 139-146. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 409, for quotations.

¹⁰Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience 2nd rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 11-32, 82-105.

¹¹"Lake Chelan and the Valley of Stehekin," Oregon Native Son, January 1900: "Beautiful Lake Chelan," Walla Walla Union, March 24, 1901. Other magazines that covered the Mazama trip and excursions to Lake Chelan and the North Cascades were The Overland Monthly and Harper's Weekly and National Geographic.

¹²"For a National Park," and "Make Chelan a National Park," Chelan Leader, March 9, 1906: "Want Lake Chelan Country Made into a National Park," Wenatchee Daily World, March 8, 1906. See also, William R. Halliday, "The Forgotten Father of North Cascades National Park," Seattle Times, March 16, 1969.

¹³"Unanimous Opposition," Chelan Leader, April 6, 1906; "Against a National Park," Chelan Leader, March 16, 1906. Park opponents were most likely inspired by the recent developments of the Holden Mine located above the west side of Lake Chelan.

¹⁴"Fancy of Fact, Which?" Chelan Leader, April 13, 1906: "No Park at Chelan," Chelan Leader, April 20, 1906. Theodore Catton, Wonderland: An Administrative History of Mount Rainier National Park (Seattle: National Park Service, 1996), 63-69.

¹⁵John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1961), 136-142, 205-207.

¹⁶Harold K. Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976), 26-34.

¹⁷Ibid., 74-75. Over the years forest boundaries and names changed in response to political and administrative demands. In 1911, for instance, the Chelan National Forest was divided to create the Okanogan National Forest.

¹⁸Schmitt, Back to Nature; Runte, 82-97.

¹⁹"Make Chelan National Park," Wenatchee World, July 26, 1916.

²⁰Mary Roberts Rinehart, Tenting Tonight (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918), 104, 113. Rinehart also noted: It was a land mostly above timberline composed of rocks, rivers, glaciers -- "more in one county than in all Switzerland, they claim" -- and granite peaks and hair-raising precipices and lakes filled with ice in midsummer." Lake Chelan added a magical trait to the region with its exceptional beauty, so "strangely deep and quiet...at the foot of its enormous cliffs."

²¹John Barton Payne to Senator Reed Smoot, April 22, 1920, Record Group 48, Records of the Secretary of the Interior, Central Files, 1907-1936, file 400, National Archives, Washington, D.C. Other petitions contained in this file called for a park linking the range's chain of volcanic peaks, Mount Adams, Glacier Peak and Baker.

²²Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), 184-185. Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior, to Honorable Scott Ferris, Chairman, Committee on Public Lands, House of Representatives, May 15, 1918, RG 48, Central Files, 1907-1936, file 400, NA. Note that the other reason for opposing the Mount Baker proposal was that it allowed natural resource development and economic uses -- mining, irrigation, and railroad rights of way. See other correspondence in this file.

²³Willard Van Name, Vanishing Forest Reserves: Problems of the National Forests and National Parks (Boston: Badger Press, 1929), 170-172. Quotation from 172.

²⁴U.S. Congress, House, 64th Cong., 2d sess., H. Rpt. 1372, Mount Baker National Park, Washington, January 29, 1917, 8. See also, "Baker National Park is Urged," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, December 15, 1915.

²⁵Hal K. Rothman, "'A Regular Ding-Dong Fight': Agency Culture and Evolution in the NPS-USFS Dispute," 1916-1937, Western Historical Quarterly 20 (May 1989); 141-161; Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 179. Stephen T. Mather to Lindley H. Hadley, March 13, 1919, RG95, Acc.#68A1216, FRC#43181, file--5500 Land Classification, National Parks, 1916-1919, FRC-PNR. Mather was referring to Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane's statement on park management, issued on May 13, 1918. This is reprinted in Ise, Our National Park Policy, 194-195.

²⁶"Mt. Baker National Park," The Washington Hatchet (April 1916): 1, copy in Record Group 95, Records of the United States Forest Service, General Correspondence, 1906-1951, Region Six, file 626--Washington Hatchet National Archives, Washington, D.C. See also, John C. Miles, Koma Kulshan:The Story of Mount Baker (Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1984), 136.

²⁷Hal Rothman, "'A Regular Ding-Dong fight.'"

²⁸"Make Upper End of Lake Chelan National Park!" Wenatchee Daily World, February 11, 1926; "A National Park," Chelan Valley Mirror, March 18, 1926; Miles, Koma Kulshan, 140-144. Mount Baker Lodge opened in 1927. The North Cascades Study Report, 47, 183. "Step in Right Direction," Wenatchee World, October 6, 1926; "Glacier Peak Association Formed," Wenatchee World, December 10, 1926.

²⁹The Forest Service did not officially designate the Glacier Park Recreation Area until 1938, and at that time it encompassed 275,200 acres. See "Management Plan for the Glacier Peak Wilderness Area, Mount Baker and Wenatchee National Forests," U.S. Forest Service-Region 6, 1965, RG95, Acc.#73A898, FRC#25219, file 2320--Glacier Peak Wilderness Area, 1956-1958, FRC-PNR.

³⁰Some publications state that the date is 1935, the official Secretary of Agriculture approval. See C.J. Buck to Marshall N. Dana, September 20, 1934, Record Group 90, Records of the Washington State Planning Council, box 38, "North Cascades Primitive Area," Washington State Archives.

³¹Craig W. Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1982), 74, 82-84.

³²Harlan D. Unrau and G. Frank Williss, Administrative History: Expansion of the National Park Service in the 1930s (Denver: National Park Service, 1983).

³³R.K. Tiffany to Ben H. Kizer, May 28, 1938, Washington State Planning Council Records, box 85, file 4, Washington State Archives. [1934 ref.] Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (Spring 1983): 17-41.

³⁴National Park Service, "Northern Cascades Area Report," November 1937, 1-3. The North Cascades study was a top priority in park studies, which looked specifically at Forest Service primitive areas.

³⁵"North Cascades Area Report," 3.

³⁶Ibid., 39, 25-26. The report went on to say: "Man's efforts are puny" in such a wild country. Thus, it "seems obvious that, in great expanses of wilderness with such rugged and varied features," that "small areas affected by mining dwindle into insignificance and can never give rise to a serious blemish in the landscape."

³⁷[Robert Marshall], "Three Great Western Wildernesses," The Living Wilderness 1 (September 1934); 10. (Marshall contributed this article anonymously, James M. Glover, A Wilderness Original: The Life of Bob Marshall (Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1986), 264, for second quotation. Robert Marshall to Irving M. Clark, November 12, 1938, RG 95, Acc.#70B825, FRC#75834, "Wilderness and Primitive Areas: North Cascades Primitive Area," FRC-PNR.; "Management Plan for the Glacier Peak Wilderness Area, Mount Baker and Wenatchee National Forests," United States Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, 1965, RG 95, Acc.#73A898, FRC#25219, FRC-PNR.

³⁸Robert Marshall to Irving M. Clark, May 18, 1938, box 1, file 40, Irving M. Clark Papers, University of Washington; Glover, A Wilderness Original, 264, 267-268.

³⁹Robert Marshall to Lyle F. Watts, November 6, 1939, RG 95, Acc.#70B825, FRC#7583, file 1: 2320, "Wilderness Areas and Primitive Areas: North Cascades Primitive Area," FRC-PNR.

⁴⁰Donald C. Swain, "The National Park Service and the New Deal," Pacific Historical Review 41 (August 1972): 320.

⁴¹Leon F. Kneipp, Assistant Chief, Forest Service, to Chief, Forest Service, September 25, 1939. For accounts of the joint team's interactions, see the above citation and Superintendent Owen A. Tomlinson to Director, National Park Service, September 23, 1939, administrative files, park history files, North Cascades National Park Service Complex Archives; Lyle F. Watts, Regional Forester to Chief, Forest Service, August 29, 1939, RG 95, "Land Classification--Cascade National Park (Proposed)," file 5500, FRC-PNR.

⁴²Watts to Chief, Forest Service, August 29, 1939; Kneipp to Chief, Forest Service, September 25, 1939. Washington State Planning Council, "Cascade Mountains Study," May 1940, 4. Carsten Lien, Olympic Battleground: The Power Politics of Timber Preservation, (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1991), 129-133. "Make It a Park? -- 'Nay' Cries Swelling," Wenatchee Daily World, October 20, 1939. Coverage of the anti-park campaign was particularly sharp in the Wenatchee Daily World, the owner of which was a supporter of the Columbia River dam projects. See Robert E. Ficken, "Rufus Woods, Wenatchee, and the Columbia River Basin Reclamation Vision," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 87 (Spring 1996): 72-81.

⁴³National Park Service, "National Park Potentialities in the North Cascade Mountains of Washington," March 1940, on file NPS; United States Forest Service, "Preliminary Report on the North Cascade National Park Study Area," April 1940, RG 95, Acc.#68A1216, FRC#43181, file 5500 Land Classification: Cascade National Park (Proposed), FRC-PNR; Washington State Planning Council, "Cascades Mountain Study."

⁴⁴Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (Spring 1983): 17-41.

⁴⁵A.E. Demaray, Acting Director, National Park Service, to Owen A. Tomlinson, Superintendent, Mount Rainier National Park, August 3, 1940; Harold L. Ickes to R.H. Rutledge, Director of Grazing Service, August 7, 1940, Tomlinson Papers.

⁴⁶Harold L. Ickes, The Secret Diary of Harold L. Ickes, 1939-1941, vol. 3 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954), 159-160; Harold L. Ickes to Mining World, August 7, 1940; Miller Freeman to Harold L. Ickes, August 20, 1940; Franklin D. Roosevelt to Miller Freeman, September 19, 1940, administrative history files, North Cascades National Park Service Complex; "Mr. Ickes Abandons Cascade Park Project," reprint Mining World, September 1941.

⁴⁷Lyle F. Watts to Irving Clark, September 10, 1940; "Management Plan for the Glacier Peak Wilderness Area."

⁴⁸Grant McConnell, "The Cascades Wilderness," Sierra Club Bulletin 41 (November 1956): 24.

⁴⁹Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1984 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 2-5, 13, 22-34.

⁵⁰Mark W. T. Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994), 287-288, 290-292. See also Michael P. Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 1892-1970 (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988), 154-180.

⁵¹Jack Kerouac, The Dharma Bums (1958; New York: Penguin Books, 1988), 154-180.

⁵²Grant McConnell, Stehekin: A Valley in Time (Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1988), 9.

⁵³Steen, 259-271; Clary, 147.

⁵⁴Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 192-211. McArdle is quoted on 199. See also, Paul W. Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optimism: Management of the National Forests since World War Two (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).

⁵⁵Cohen, 221, for quote.

⁵⁶See, for example, a report by the Mountaineers entitled, "Recommendations for the Proposed Glacier Peak Wilderness Area," April 1, 1956, and Philip H. Zalesky, "Glacier Peak Wilderness Area," c. 1956, Mountaineers Papers, box 2, Glacier Peak file, University of Washington.

⁵⁷"Recommendations for the Proposed Glacier Peak Wilderness Area," and Philip Zalesky, "Glacier Peak Wilderness Area," Mountaineers Papers. Quotations from Zalesky, 1, 5-6.

⁵⁸Grant McConnell to Patrick Goldsworthy, et al., July 10, 1956, and John Seiker (Chief, Forest Service Division of Recreation and Lands) to Edgar Wayburn (Sierra Club), October 18, 1956, Zalesky papers, box 2, unlabeled file, UW. United States Forest Service, "Glacier Peak Land Management Study," February 7, 1957, Warren G. Magnuson Papers, box 92, file 1, University of Washington.

⁵⁹The two most effective weapons in the Dinosaur campaign were the film, "Wilderness River Trail" and the book, This is Dinosaur, written by Wallace Stegner; these were Brower's ideas.

⁶⁰David Brower, "Will We Discover the Northern Cascades in Time?" Sierra Club Bulletin 42 (June 1957): 13-16. Grant McConnell, "Northern Cascades," Sierra Club Bulletin 43 (January 1958): 23-25. Simons' complete statement can be found in David R. Simons to J. Herbert Stone, April 6, 1957, RG 79. Acc.#71A1071, FRC#8639, file L58, North Cascades-Glacier Peak Wilderness, FRC-PNR. McConnell, "The Cascades Wilderness," 31; McConnell, "The Multiple-Use Concept in Forest Service Policy," Sierra Club Bulletin 44 (October 1949): 14. McConnell, who went on to develop this idea into his political critique of multiple use while a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, used his own Stehekin Valley as an example of the failings of multiple use. Under the U Regulations, roads were excluded from wilderness areas, which eliminated Stehekin from the proposed Glacier Peak wilderness, but this fact still did not detract from the valley's unspoiled beauty. The road after all was not attached to the outside world; it led to nowhere. Still, under multiple use management it would lose its integrity as a wilderness threshold, scarred by logging and haphazard development.

⁶¹J. Herbert Stone, "Glacier Peak Wilderness Proposal (1959)", The Living Wilderness 24 (Autumn 1959): 10-12.

⁶²David Brower, "Crisis in the Northern Cascades: The Missing Million," Sierra Club Bulletin (February 1959(, quoted in The Living Wilderness 24 (Spring 1959): 35. Brower and fellow conservationists decried "sanitation logging" in recreation areas which foresters could carry out at their own discretion, essentially, placing in jeopardy all the scenic forests fringing a wilderness area.

⁶³David Brower, "Crisis in the Northern Cascades: The Missing Million," Sierra Club Bulletin (February 1959), quoted in The Living Wilderness 24 (Spring 1959): 35.

⁶⁴Harvey, Symbol of Wilderness, 258, 288; Runte, National Parks, 171.

⁶⁵Richard W. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 187-190.

⁶⁶Alfred Runte, Yosemite: The Embattle Wilderness (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 192-197. See also, Ansel Adams, "Tenaya Tragedy," Sierra Club Bulletin 43 (November 1958): 1-4.

⁶⁷Grant McConnell to David Brower, May 15, 1958, RG 79, Acc.#71A1071, FRC#8639, file L58, North Cascades-Glacier Peak Wilderness, FRC-PNR.

⁶⁸David Brower to Grant McConnell, July 16, 1958, ibid.

⁶⁹The Wilderness Society supported full protection, apparently hoping a wilderness area of Marshall's proportions would be established. In principle, it supported a park.

⁷⁰Patrick D. Goldsworthy to Thomas M. Pelly, February 19, 1959, Pelly Papers, box 14, UW. Sierra Club Bulletin.

⁷¹Thomas M. Pelly to Conrad L. Wirth, March 9, 1959, Mountaineers Papers, box 2, National Park Proposals, 1961-64, UW. Richard E. McArdle to Thomas M. Pelly, August 24, 1959, Thomas M. Pelly Papers, box 14, no file name, UW. Conrad L. Wirth to Secretary of the Interior, December 11, 1959, RG 79, Acc.#69A1292, FRC#905604, box 16, file L58, FRC-PNR.

⁷²For a thorough treatment of the politics associated with the park's establishment, see Allan R. Sommarstrom, "Wild Land Preservation Crisis: The North Cascades Controversy," 1970, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington. Don Magnuson and Thomas M. Pelly to Fred. A. Seaton, Secretary of the Interior, October 6, 1959, Mountaineers Papers, box 2, file North Cascades National Park Proposals, 1961-64. See U.S. Congress, House, Congressional Record, 87th Cong., 1st sess., June 7, 1961.

⁷³Henry M. Jackson and Wayne Morse to Orville L. Freeman, May 4, 1961; Orville L. Freeman to Wayne Morse, Henry M. Jackson, Warren G. Magnuson, and Maurine B. Neuberger, June 7, 1961, Warren G. Magnuson Papers, box 122, file 15, UW. These senators, from Washington and Oregon, had jointly asked the secretary to develop a management plan for the high mountains in their respective states.

⁷⁴John A. Baker, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, to Thomas M. Pelly, September 13, 1962, Magnuson papers, box 122, file 10, UW.

⁷⁵See Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence, 54-57. Thomas G. Smith, "John Kennedy, Stewart Udall, and New Frontier Conservation," Pacific Historical Review 64 (August 1995): 335, 351. During Eisenhower's presidency only two national parks were added to the system, Virgin Islands and Haleakala.

⁷⁶A great deal of private meetings and lobbying led to this alliance. After learning about the North Cascades issue from the Sierra Club, North Cascades Conservation Council and Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, Udall expressed his support of the park study, and with Douglas worked to mend relations with the Department of Agriculture and win the support of Washington's senators. See, for example, correspondence from November and December 1959 in North Cascades Conservation Council Papers, box 1, Udall Correspondence file, UW. The members were Edward C. Crafts, chairman, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation; George B. Hartzog, Jr., Director, National Park Service; Dr. Owen S. Stratton, Chairman of the Political Science Department, Wellesley College, and consultant to the Secretary of the Interior; Dr. George A. Selke, consultant to Secretary of Agriculture; and Arthur W. Greeley, Deputy Chief of the Forest Service.

⁷⁷Stewart L. Udall and Orville L. Freeman to Edward C. Crafts, March 5, 1963, Stewart L. Udall Papers, box 156, file 5, University of Arizona.

⁷⁸United States Department of the Interior and Department of Agriculture, The North Cascades: A Report to the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of the Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior and Department of Agriculture, October 1965), 78 (Hereafter referred to as Study Report).

⁷⁹J. Michael McCloskey, ed., Prospectus for a North Cascades National Park (Seattle: North Cascades Conservation Council, 1963).

⁸⁰Cohen, 312-313. Cohen suggests that the Prospectus persuaded the Kennedy administration to study the North Cascades. This seems only partly true. The council had drafted legislation for Udall in the early 1960s, but this was the only part of the document ready by 1963 when the study was launched.

⁸¹Study Report, 79; 165 for quotation.

⁸²George B. Hartzog, Jr., to Edward C. Crafts, October 19, 1965, RG 79, Acc.#69A1292, FRC#905604, box 16, file L58, FRC-PNR. This letter is reprinted in the Study Report, 139-141.

⁸³George A. Selke to Edward C. Crafts, October 12, 1965, reprinted in the Study Report, 130-138.

⁸⁴Orville L. Freeman to Stewart L. Udall, November 9, 1965, Udall Papers, box 156, file 4, UA.

⁸⁵George A. Selke and Arthur W. Greeley to Edward C. Crafts, December 3, 1965, RG 95, Acc.#70A109, FRC#129236, file--North Cascades Study Area, FRC-PNR. This letter is reprinted in the Study Report, 147-150. Selke and Greeley went on to say that management of the region would permit some resource extraction, "the virile sport of hunting," water developments, and "incidental harvesting and 'gathering'." In addition, under national recreation area policies, the Forest Service could develop the ranger of winter sports and organization camps."

⁸⁶Edward C. Crafts to Stewart L. Udall, December 25, 1965, Udall Papers, box 156, file 5, UA.

⁸⁷First quotations from New York Times, February 13, 1966. Reprinted in Congressional Record--Appendix, House, February 15, 1966, A737. Last quotation is from John A. Rutter to George B. Hartzog, Jr., January 20, 1966, RG 79, Acc.#74A598, FRC#19936, file L58, FRC-PNR. The comments are Frank Brockman's.

⁸⁸Patrick D. Goldsworthy to George B. Hartzog, Jr., April 5, 1966, John Osseward Papers, box 8, file North Cascades Conservation Council, University of Washington; "Amen Mr. Justice," American Forests 73 (November 1967): 30-31; "Ah, Wilderness: Severe Overcrowding Brings Ills of the City to Scenic Yosemite," Wall Street Journal, June 24, 1966.

⁸⁹Richard Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 194. Emphasis added by Sellars.

⁹⁰Paul Brooks, "The Fight for the American Alps," The Atlantic Monthly 219 (February 1967): 87-90.

⁹¹Gary Snyder, Earth House Hold: Technical Notes and Queries To Fellow Dharma Revolutionaries (1957; New York: New Directions Books, 1967), 101.

⁹²U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, North Cascades-Olympic National Park, Hearings on the Study Team Report of the Recreational Opportunities in the State of Washington, February 11 and 12, 1966, 89th Cong., 2d sess., 1966. (Hereafter cited as Hearings on Study Team Report.) It should be noted by the title of the hearings that Jackson's intentions were questioned. Was he joining the North Cascades issue with the volatile subject of adjusting Olympic's boundaries to gain publicity or out of real concern? Was some trade in the works--land exchanges at Olympic for a park in the North Cascades? Certainly, as many preservationists protested, by relating North Cascades with Olympic, Jackson would repeat the problems of the 1930s, when so much anger over the creation of Olympic led to the successful defeat of the park study for North Cascades. There was so much protest to the Olympic boundary adjustments during the hearings that the proposal was dropped--whatever Jackson's true intent.

⁹³Hearings on Study Team Report, 347-349. See also Allan Sommarstrom, "Wild Land Preservation Crisis," 96-121.

⁹⁴Memorandum, Orville L. Freeman to President Lyndon B. Johnson, December 28, 1966; Memorandum, Stewart L. Udall to President Lyndon B. Johnson, December 29, 1966, Udall Papers, box 156, file 5, UA.

⁹⁵Senate Bill 1321, "To Establish the North Cascades National Park and Ross Lake National Recreation Area, to designate the Pasayten Wilderness and to modify the Glacier Peak Wilderness, in the State of Washington, and for other purposes," October 31, 1967, 90th Cong., 1st sess.

⁹⁶U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, Hearings on S. 1321, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967, 14-15. (Hereafter cited as Hearings on S. 1321.)

⁹⁷Hearings on S. 1321, 14-15.

⁹⁸Hearings on S. 1321, 336-337, 427.

⁹⁹It should be noted that protecting Granite Creek, even though the highway ran through it was necessary to retain the region's scenic qualities as visitors approached and drove through the park; it was also a way to avoid future, unsightly and destructive, developments in the area for interpretive purposes, in particular a spur road down Bridge Creek. Hence, protecting wilderness through development.

¹⁰⁰Hearings on S. 1321, 64-68.

¹⁰¹Hearings on S. 1321, 92.

¹⁰²Adding Lightning Creek to the Pasayten would prevent any future road construction down the shore of Ross Lake from Canada, even though by the time of the hearings the Park Service had scratched this from its plans as well as the use of helicopters.

¹⁰³H. Duane Hampton, "Opposition to National Parks," Journal of Forest History 25 (January 1981): 36-45.

¹⁰⁴Intentionally left blank.

¹⁰⁵Wesley Arden Dick, "When Dams Weren't Damned: The Public Power Crusade and Visions of the Good Life in the Pacific Northwest in the 1930s," Environmental Review 13 (Fall/Winter 1989): 119.

¹⁰⁶As Jackson stated to Nelson during the hearings: "I think the Seattle Light people...deserve great tribute for recognizing the conservation possibilities in the Skagit area...I think what you have done over the years is a good example for others to follow." Moreover, "what you are doing to assist tourists and outdoor recreationists in the area," the senator concluded, was "quite remarkable." The boundaries of Ross Lake Recreation Area had already been drawn to adjust for the raising of the lake in accordance with plans to raise Ross Dam. This provision was already part of the first version of S. 1321 and was presented as both a necessary addition for power production and as an improvement for recreational opportunities along the lake--from boating to camping and fishing. It should also be noted that the committee left the actual approval of the project up to the Federal Power Commission. Should the project on Thunder Creek be turned down, it was expected, Jackson noted, that this area would be managed as if it were part of the national park. See Hearings, 1967, 59, for quotations.

¹⁰⁷Patrick D. Goldsworthy, "Protecting the North Cascades, 1954-1983," an oral history conducted by Ann Lage, in Pacific Northwest Conservationists, Regional Oral History Office, the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1986, 53.

¹⁰⁸Sommarstrom, "Wild Land Preservation Crisis," 96-104.

¹⁰⁹Hearings on S. 1321, 50-51. Evans' statement and state government resolution are on 42-49.

¹¹⁰Hearings on S. 1321, 51.

¹¹¹John A. Biggs to Henry M. Jackson, June 21, 1967, Henry M. Jackson papers, box 338, file 12, University of Washington, U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, S. 1321, Report No. 700, October 31, 1967, 90th Cong., 1st sess., 30-31. (Hereafter cited as Report No. 700.) The committee report, 31, notes the improvements that the game department and Chelan PUD were seeking to improve fishing in the lake. This was only a partial concession to the department, which wanted to retain full control of fisheries management within the entire proposed park, and wanted the Park Service to assume all responsibility for wildlife damage on private lands inside or outside the park's boundaries due to the closure of hunting seasons. See Burton J. Lauckhart, Chief, Game Management Division, to John A. Biggs, September 20, 1967, and Thomas O. Wimmer to Sterling Monroe, July 26, 1967, Henry M. Jackson Papers, box 338, file 14, University of Washington.

¹¹²Quote from Hearings on S. 1321, 631. The Park Service also added its newly drafted land and water acquisition policies for natural areas and recreation areas.

¹¹³Members of Congress were referring to the relative explosion of parks, recreation areas, and national seashores during the latter 1960s which caused some overlapping management as well as created jurisdictional rivalries between the two bureaus. The 1963 "Treaty of the Potomac" attempted to resolve some of these issues and disputes--such as Whiskeytown-Shasta-Trinity NRA.

¹¹⁴Report No. 700, 11-12.

¹¹⁵Report No. 700, 31.

¹¹⁶Congressional Record, Senate, November 2, 1967, S15757.

¹¹⁷Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 288-289.

¹¹⁸National Park Service, Legislative History for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, vol. I, (May 1986), 15-122.

¹¹⁹"Men to Match Our Mountains," The Seattle Times, May 26, 1968, 6-7.

¹²⁰U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Hearings on H.R. 8970, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 2d sess., 1968, 80.

¹²¹John P. Saylor to Daniel J. Evans, June 26, 1968, Governor Daniel J. Evans Papers, [2s-2-358], file--North Cascades, Washington State Archives.

¹²²M. Brock Evans to Dave Payton, June 14, 1958, Evans Papers, [2s-2-358], file--North Cascades, Washington State Archives.

¹²³Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Viking, 1986), 285-290. Quotation from 289.

¹²⁴Sommarstrom, 137.

¹²⁵Sommarstrom, 137-140.

¹²⁶See, for example, U.S. Congress, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Report No. 1870 on H.R. 8970, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 2d sess., September 9, 1968; and An Act to Establish North Cascades National Park and Ross Lake and Lake Chelan National Recreation Areas, to Designate the Pasayten Wilderness and to Modify the Glacier Peak Wilderness, in the State of Washington, and for Other Purposes, Public Law 90-544, 90th Cong., S. 1321, October 2, 1968.

¹²⁷Paul Brooks, The Pursuit of Wilderness, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), 44.

¹Spokesman Review, October 3, 1968. The North Cascades Act created a park complex of the two-unit North Cascades National Park, which embraced nearly 505,000 acres, Ross Lake National Recreation Area of some 105,000 (or 107,000) acres, and Lake Chelan National Recreation Area of 62,000 acres. The North Cascades Act also created 520,000-acre Pasayten Wilderness and provided for a 10,000-acre addition to the Glacier Peak Wilderness. Altogether, the act set aside some 1.2 million acres of wild alpine country.

²See, for example, "Conservationists Not Satisfied," Seattle Times, October 27, 1968, and Harvey Manning, The Wild Cascades: Forgotten Parkland, rev. ed. (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1969), 26-27, 145-148.

³Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington D.C.: Resources For the Future, Inc., 1984), 109, 111.

⁴A. Starker Leopold et al., "Wildlife Management in the National Parks," March 4, 1963, 4, reprinted in Administrative Policies for Natural Areas of the National Park System (Washington D.C.: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1970), 97-112.

⁵Department of the Interior, Administrative Policies for Natural Areas of the National Park System (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1970), 23.

⁶Barry Mackintosh, The National Parks: Shaping the System (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984), 62-64. Department of the Interior, Administrative Policies for Natural Areas, 33, 76-83.

¹Charles A. Connaughton, Regional Forester, to Division Chiefs and Forest Supervisors, Mt. Baker, Okanogan, and Wenatchee National Forests, October 22, 1968, Record Group 95, Acc.#76A715, FRC#124715, file North Cascades National Park, Federal Record Center--Pacific Northwest Region.

²Personal interview with Roger J. Contor, June 25, 1996. "Briefing Statement--North Cascades National Park for Congressman Lloyd Meeds," July 4, 1969, Lloyd Meeds Papers, box 5, file on North Cascades Development, University of Washington.

³Personal interview with Roger J. Contor, June 25, 1996.

⁴"Cascade Park Plans Outlined," Bellingham Herald, October 8, 1968; Quotation from "Booster Group Forms to Support New Park Throughout County," Skagit Valley Herald, October 11, 1968; "Jackson, Contor Outline Future National Park Plans," Chelan Valley Mirror, October 31, 1968.

⁵Margaret J. Stadlman to Lloyd Meeds, November 12, 1968, Lloyd Meeds Papers, box 10, file D-National Park Service.

⁶Roger J. Contor to Margaret J. Stadlman, December 4, 1968, Lloyd Meeds Papers, box 10, file D-National Park Service, University of Washington; Daniel J. Evans to Rogers Morton, May 3, 1971; W. Lowell White to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, December 5, 1973, administrative files, file A80, North Cascades National Park.

⁷Gerald W. Pelton, "Cooperation-Mountain Style," Parks and Recreation (November 1971): 34-35. Article attached to Gerald W. Pelton to North Cascades Reconnaissance Task Force, December 1, 1971, administrative files, file A3815, North Cascades National Park Service Complex. Members of the task force were federal officials from the Park Service, Forest Service (the Mount Baker and Okanogan National Forests), Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, and Federal Highway Administration. State agencies were represented by officials from the departments of Commerce and Economic Development, Highways, Game, Interagency Committee on Outdoor Recreation, Natural Resources, Planning and Community Affairs, Parks and Recreation, and Program Planning and Fiscal Management. County commissioners also served on the task force; they represented Chelan, Okanogan, Skagit, and Whatcom counties, the four counties in which the North Cascades park and forest complex was located.

⁸National Park Service, Master Plan: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington (November 1970), 2, 36.

⁹Master Plan, 2-6. Quotation from 6.

¹⁰National Park Service, Wilderness Recommendations: North Cascades Complex, Washington (August 1970), 1. "Statement of Roger J. Contor," Wilderness Hearings, North Cascades National Park, June 4, 6, 1970, 2, administrative files, file L48, NOCA.

¹¹Roger J. Contor to Director, Western Service Center, May 21, 1970, administrative files, file D18, NOCA; Department of the Interior, North Cascades National Park Service, Forest Service (August 1974), 8, 37-39.

¹²Joint Plan, 13-31.

¹³Walt Woodward, "Superintendent's Report: What's Happening in North Cascades Park," Seattle Times, September 14, 1969.

¹⁴"New Cascades Plan Unveiled," Wenatchee World, June 23, 1970.

¹⁵Ibid.

¹⁶"Superintendent's Report," Seattle Times, September 14, 1969.

¹⁷"Forest Service Supervisors Leave Fire Line to Face Heated Dispute on North Cascades," Seattle Times, July 19, 1970; Harold C. Chriswell to Regional Forester, September 14, 1967, Record Group 95, Acc.#76A2058, FRC#68115, box 7, Federal Records Center--Pacific Northwest Region. Harold C. Chriswell to Regional Forester, April 7, 1971, RG 95, Acc.#76H2058, FRC#68116, file 2150, Special Planning Areas-North Cascades Study, FRC-PNR.

¹Alfred Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 202-206.

²Roger J. Contor to Walt Woodward, October 19, 1968, administrative files, Yellows, NOCA.

³Seattle Times, September 14, 1969.

⁴North Cascades Conservation Council, Committee for the Review of National Forest and Park Service General Development and Wilderness Proposals for the North Cascades Region, to North Cascades Conservation Council Board Members, May 1, 1970, John Osseward Papers, box 7, North Cascades National Park Hearings, June 3-6, 1970, University of Washington.

⁵U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, Hearings on S. 1321, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967, 22-23. (Hereafter cited as Hearings on S. 1321.) U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, Hearings on H.R. 8970, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 2d sess., 1968, 951. (Hereafter cited as Hearings on H.R. 8970.)

⁶Hearings on S. 1321, 21-22.

⁷Hearings on H.R. 8970, 953, 959.

⁸Hearings on S. 1321, 23-24.

⁹Ibid., 23.

¹⁰Joseph L. Sax, Mountains Without Handrails: Reflections on the National Parks (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1980), 62-63.

¹¹Patrick D. Goldsworthy to George B. Hartzog, Jr., April 5, 1966, Emily Haig Papers, box 29, file 9, University of Washington; Ira L. Spring to Lloyd Meeds, April 23, 1968, Lloyd Meeds Papers, box 14, file--H.R. 8970: North Cascades Correspondence, University of Washington.

¹²"Meeds off on Park Tour; Wants It 'Pro People'," Skagit Valley Herald, August 26, 1969.

¹³"Testimony by Congressman Lloyd Meeds...on the Development of the North Cascades National Park," April 12, 1972; Briefing Statement, "General Statement on Development: North Cascades National Park," February 1, 1977, Lloyd Meeds Papers, box 63, file "North Cascades", University of Washington.

¹⁴North Cascades Conservation Council to Board Members, May 1, 1970.

¹⁵For specifics of the Roland Point development, see "Presentation for North Cascades: Lower Ross Lake and Roland Point," unattributed, undated report, c. 1971, administrative files, North Cascades National Park. Personal interview with Lowell White, July 19, 1996. The ferry service and Arctic Creek tramway, though they remained in the plan, never materialized.

¹⁶Lloyd Meeds to George Hartzog, Jr., March 14, 1972, box 6, file "North Cascades", Meeds Papers, UW.

¹⁷This is not to say that the agency abandoned any hopes of gaining access to the southern end of Ross Lake. As part of its negotiations with City Light over the raising of the dam, the agency required that the utility provide a public access road and lakeshore facilities. See discussion in section on the park's relationship with City Light and the High Ross controversy.

¹⁸Press release from Congressman Lloyd Meeds, August 21, 1972, box 63, file "North Cascades," Meeds Papers.

¹⁹Lowell White to Regional Director, October 11, 1972, administrative files, file A38, NOCA.

²⁰"Testimony of Lloyd Meeds before the Subcommittee on Interior and Related Agencies," May 12,1975, box 63, file "North Cascades", Meeds Papers, UW.

²¹"Testimony of Lloyd Meeds," May 12, 1975. See, for example, superintendent's annual reports for the years 1975-1979.

²²White interview.

²³White interview.

²⁴Personal interview with Roger Contor, June 25, 1996. Roger J. Contor, North Cross-State Highway Coordinating Committee Meeting, Minutes, December 3, 1969, box 1, file 25; "North Cascades Task Force Workbook," c. 1968, box 1, file 27, North Cascades National Park Service Complex Archives, NOCA (NOCA Archives).

²⁵John A. Rutter to Henry M. Jackson, August 12, 1970, Henry M. Jackson Papers, box 107, file 20, University of Washington.

²⁶"Cascade Pass Management Plan," January 1, 1974, administrative files, L48, NOCA.

²⁷"Cascade Pass Management Plan," 6. Gary J. Kuiper to D.H. Porter, April 24, 1974; Gary J. Kuiper to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, April 16, 1974, administrative files, file L48, NOCA. See also, "Assessment of the Environmental Impact of Implementation of the Cascade Pass Management Plan," June 1974, ibid. Kuiper, the park's assistant superintendent, noted also that area residents were concerned about who would maintain the road should it be closed. This concern he added, was rooted in the ownership of this Mine-to-Market road, which the county claimed. Kuiper also mentioned pressing forward with a memorandum of understanding between the park and the county regarding the road's maintenance and possible closure; however, the regional director seems to have thought it imprudent to force the issue. Better to work with all parties involved than work against them.

²⁸A summary of public comments can be found in Kuiper to Regional Director, April 16, 1974. The park's files, cited above, also contain transcripts of the meetings.

²⁹Grant McConnell, Stehekin: A Valley in Time, (Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1988), 12-13.

³⁰Roger J. Contor to R.J. Brooks, August 12, 1970, administrative files, A36, NOCA. See also Roger J. Contor to Brock Evans, September 1, 1970, ibid.

³¹Roger J. Contor to Marc Bardsley, June 23, 1970, administrative files, file D18, NOCA; Grant McConnell, "Five Years of National Park Service Administration in the North Cascades," The Wild Cascades (December 1973/January 1974): 11.

³²"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades Park Service Complex, 1973," box 1, file five, NOCA Archives. McConnell, "Five Years of National Park Service Administration," 12. It should be noted that not all park managers were in agreement with improvements to the Stehekin Road. Park biologist Robert Wasem, for example, questioned the "sociological impact of the road paving" on the primitive nature of the valley. C. Robert Wasem to Superintendent Lowell White, September 20, 1972, administrative files, file L74, NOCA.

³³The issue over the transfer of the Stehekin Road, and the Park Service's related jurisdiction over the Company Creek Road, where most of the pressure over snow removal came from, can be found in file 65, NOCA Archives. John A. Rutter to Henry M. Jackson, Henry M. Jackson Papers, box 107, file 19, University of Washington; Contor to Bardsley, June 23, 1970.

³⁴This summary of the park complex's interpretive program is drawn from Superintendent's Annual Reports, 1972-1978, and park interpretive planning files, administrative files, file K1817, NOCA.

³⁵Roger J. Contor to Director, Western Service Center, August 12, 1970, administrative files, file K1817, NOCA.

³⁶National Park Service, Interim Interpretive Plan, Skagit District, Ross Lake National Recreation Area, North Cascades Complex, July 1976, 2-10.

¹John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1961), 606.

²Public Law 249, 89th Cong., 1st sess., October 9, 1965.

³Lowell White to Brock Evans, March 1, 1971, administrative files, file C38, NOCA. Personal interview with Lowell White, July 19, 1996. It should be noted that in the park complex's first decade of management there were a number of other concession operators, or individuals with special use permits, who offered services to the park complex's visitors. These include the Courtney horse packing concession in Stehekin and several river-rafting guide services on the Skagit River below Newhalem and one on the Stehekin River.

⁴"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1975," box 1, file 7, NOCA Archives. White to Evans, March 1, 1971.

⁵Letter to the Files, Roger J. Contor, November 11, 1970, administrative files, file C38, NOCA. See related memoranda in these files relating to Ross Lake Resort.

⁶Ibid.

⁷Lowell White to Wayne Dameron, January 29, 1971, administrative files, file C38, NOCA.

⁸National Park Service, Diablo Lake Resort Development Concept Plan: Ross Lake National Recreation Area, May 3, 1971.

⁹Diablo Lake Resort Development Concept Plan, 5. "National Park Service Background of the Diablo Lake resort," c. 1985, administrative files, file C3823, NOCA.

¹⁰Lowell White to Director, Pacific Northwest Region, February 28, 1972, administrative files, file C38, NOCA.

¹¹It should be noted that the names of these resorts vary historically. The Golden West Lodge, for example, came to be referred to also as the Stehekin Lodge by the time of the park complex's creation. The Swissmont appears to have also gone by the names of the Stehekin Resort or the Stehekin Landing Resort. There were, at bottom, three resorts or lodges located at the landing.

¹²Susan E. Georgette to Ann H. Harvey, Local Influence and the National Interest: Ten Years of National Park Service Administration in the Stehekin Valley, Washington, Publication No. 4, Environmental Field Program (Santa Cruz: University of California Santa Cruz, 1980), 74.

¹³Letter to the files, June 24, 1971, administrative files, C38, NOCA.

¹⁴Larry Tonge operated the Boatel before Moore.

¹⁵Lowell White to Files, September 28, 1971, Concessions, box 1, file 4, NOCA Archives. Other information on the concession operations in Stehekin can be found in this file. See, for example, Lowell White to John O.E. Moore, July 5, 1972.

¹⁶Williams J. Weaver, Acting Superintendent, to Regional Director, April 2, 1976, Concessions, box 1, file 4, NOCA Archives. See also Stehekin Transportation Plan, April 1976-get full cite. In 1976, park managers proposed a trial operation in which Byrd operated the shuttle service to High Bridge and from there the Park Service would operate the service to Cottonwood. A $1 fee per day would be charged by the concessioner for his bus service. The agency's service would be free to visitors, and would also be free to residents. Park managers believed, based on the Stehekin transportation study that a system of larger buses in the lower valley and smaller buses in the upper valley would cost the same or perhaps less.

¹⁷Byrd's views were shared by others of course who felt that the Park Service's presence had altered the valley's character, among other things. It should be noted that Byrd's ideas were tied to being excluded from the Park Service's recent planning efforts in Stehekin. In addition, Byrd seemed to object to a private study of Stehekin's concessions that the Park Service contracted with the Seattle Center for Hotel and Restaurant Administration, located at Washington State University. One of the main reasons for the study was to find a way to handle food and other services for the increased number of visitors the New Lady would bring to the Stehekin Landing. Park managers reported that the report's recommendations were a success; combining box picnic lunches, outdoor barbeque and light food service at the restaurant dispersed the boat's passengers. "Superintendent's Annual Report for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1976," 12, Administration and Management, box 1, file 8, NOCA Archives. See also John W. McCracken to Lowell White, April 15, 1976, and McCracken's accompanying report, "An Operational Analysis North Cascades Lodge," April 1976, Concessions, box 1, file 4, NOCA Archives. Robert Byrd imparted his views in two key letters. Robert Byrd to Lowell White, May 29, 1976; and Robert Byrd to Lowell White, June 10, 1976, Concessions, box 1, file 4, NOCA Archives.

¹⁸The Park Services allowed Byrd to continue operating the shuttle service for the 1976 season, but took over operation officially--the first time since its initiation in 1972--in 1977. "Superintendent's Annual Report for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1977," Administration and Management, box 1, file 9, NOCA Archives.

¹⁹"Superintendent's Annual Report for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1977" and "Superintendent's Annual Report for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1978," Administration and Management, box 1, file 4, NOCA Archives. See also letters and contract information from the National Park Service to Gibson and Dinwiddie in concessions files, box 1, file 4. There is, at least in the official record, no mention of how the Park Service and Byrd parted. One letter in the files suggests that Byrd left the business but refused to sell his property--chairs, beds, restaurant equipment-- to the new operators.

¹"Statement of Roger J. Contor," Wilderness Hearings, North Cascades National Park, June 4, 6, 1970, 2; Roger J. Contor, "Natural Area Management in Our Wildest National Park," March 12, 1970, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 84, NOCA Archives. National Park Service, Wilderness Recommendations: North Cascades Complex, Washington (August 1970), 1.

²North Cascades Conservation Council, Committee for the Review of National Forest and Park Service General Development and Wilderness Proposals for the North Cascades Region, to North Cascades Conservation Council Board Members, May 1, 1970, John Osseward Papers, box 7, File--North Cascades National Park Hearings, June 3-6, 1970, University of Washington.

³Ibid. See also "North Cascades Wilderness Proposed," The Living Wilderness 34 (Summer 1970): 60-61, and "Cascades Wilderness Additions Urged," The Living Wilderness 34 (Autumn 1970): 60-62. Other excerpts from the Wilderness Society's journal can be found in the park's files. See "Should the North Cascades Wilderness Be Invaded by Chalets and Tramways," and "Why North Cascades Proposals Needs Revision," c. 1970; see also National Parks Association, "North Cascades National Park, Washington: A Wilderness Plan for the National Park and Surrounding Region," May 1970, administrative files, park history files, North Cascades National Park Service Complex Archives (Hereafter NOCA Archives).

⁴"Why North Cascades Proposal Needs Revision."

⁵Most of these shelters for recording measurements belonged to the United States Geological Survey.

⁶Ibid. See also North Cascades Committee to North Cascades Board Members, May 1, 1970.

⁷See the above citations. For a complete list of comments on the wilderness plan see Wilderness Recommendations: North Cascades Complex, especially Director Hartzog's letter, 18-20.

⁸Wilderness Recommendations, 18-20.

⁹Ibid. It should be noted that there were two other hostels proposed to make up for the loss of the Picket Range hostels. One was located along the Pacific Crest Trail in the park's southern unit, and the other was located in Ross Lake NRA on the Lightning Creek Trail.

¹⁰Ibid. Personal interview with Roger J. Contor, June 25, 1996. Contor noted that he explained the situation to Margaret Murie, Olaus Murie's wife, of the Wilderness Society and she agreed to pressure Hartzog to delete the hostels from the wilderness plan. Primed by this pressure and recent events at Glacier, Hartzog, it seems, agreed to remove the hostels. But there were hostels still proposed in Lake Chelan NRA in the Stehekin Valley as part of the master plan's general scheme to relieve some of the pressure from the landing.

¹¹John A. Rutter to Associate Director, Legislation, National Park Service, June 25, 1975, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 85, NOCA Archives. Rutter details some of the congressional sequence of events, and suggests that it would not be appropriate at the time, though it was required, to complete an EIS for the wilderness proposal.

¹²Ibid.

¹³Roger J. Contor, "Proposed Wilderness Management Guidelines: North Cascades National Park," December 1970, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 84, NOCA Archives.

¹⁴Sequoia and Kings Canyon present a good comparison for gaining some perspective on the backcountry management practices for North Cascades. Park Service officials completed the first backcountry management plan for the parks in 1961; it addressed broad issues such as a definition of wilderness, carrying capacity, and a true wilderness experience. It also launched a vigorous program of meadow monitoring and closures and trash removal. It also recommended helicopter use as a way to lessen impacts to high country areas, caused by pack stock, for supplying trail crews, lookouts, and the like--a point of some controversy in the North Cascades. Sequoia-Kings also shared similar interagency relations and wilderness concerns over permits as did North Cascades, specifically with bordering national forests. See Lary M. Dilsaver and William C. Twed, Challenge of the Big Trees: A Resource History of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks (Three Rivers, Calif.: Sequoia Natural History Association, 1990), 265-278.

¹⁵Contor, "Proposed Wilderness Management Guidelines," 1-2.

¹⁶Ibid. Unless otherwise cited, the following paragraphs are drawn from Contor's report.

¹⁷Contor interview.

¹⁸National Park Service, "Backcountry Management Plan: North Cascades National Park Service Complex," March 14, 1974, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 85, NOCA Archives.

¹⁹In general, these standards, attached as an appendix to the plan, would conform to other standards, such as for signs for example, used in national forest wildernesses adjoining the park complex. They were also intended to contribute to the overall wilderness experience; posts rather than signs would mark campsites.

²⁰At first, park staffers distribute permits from the main Skagit District office at Marblemount, but in 1975, the backcountry permit center came into its own when an "Information Trailer" was moved up from Concrete and the permit center moved its operations here. See "Superintendent's Annual Report for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1975," and "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1978." See also "Backcountry Management Plan: North Cascades National Park Service Complex," and John Hays, " Mandatory Backcountry Permits...North Cascades National Park--Summer 1974," February 1, 1975, administrative files, file L3419, NOCA.

²¹Roger J. Contor, "Natural Area Management in Our Wildest National Park," March 12, 1970, Natural and Social Sciences, box 6, file 3, NOCA Archives.

²²National Park Service, "Cascade Pass Action Plan," January 1, 1974, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 85, NOCA Archives.

²³The work of the Millers is referenced throughout the park documents and their contributions are recounted with praise by many park employees. See also "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1977 and 1978.

²⁴John E. Jensen to Superintendent Lowell White, March 9, 1977, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 85, NOCA Archives. See also Superintendent John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, August 23, 1985, Administration and Management, box 1, file 22, NOCA Archives.

²⁵The park complex's land acquisition program will be discussed more thoroughly in the next section of this history. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, many of the park complex's land acquisition issues came to a climax. See, for example, Jerry W. Hammond to Regional Director, administrative files, file L1425, April 7, 1971, NOCA; John A. Rutter to Lloyd Meeds, December 4, 1975, administrative files, file L2023, NOCA.

²⁶Dan Taylor, "Report on Conditions of the Backcountry and Recommendations for Further Progress: Skagit District, North Cascades National Park and Ross Lake National Recreation," November 1977, 9, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 85, NOCA Archives. See also John E. Jensen to Superintendent Lowell White, May 15, 1978, and related correspondence in this file.

²⁷Taylor, "Report on Conditions of the Backcountry," 3-4.

²⁸Taylor, 7; Jensen to White, March 9, 1977.

²⁹Jensen to White, March 9, 1977.

¹A. Starker Leopold et al., "Wildlife Management in the National Parks," March 4, 1963, 4, reprinted in Administrative Policies for Natural Areas of the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1970, 97-112. See also, Richard W. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997).

²"Guidelines for Resources Management in the Areas in the Natural Category of the National Park System," attached to memorandum from Assistant Director, Operations, National Park Service, to All Field Offices, October 14, 1965, Henry M. Jackson Papers, box 338, file 20, University of Washington.

³Superintendent Roger J. Contor to Regional Director, June 20, 1969, administrative files, file N22, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA).

⁴"A Preliminary Research Program for North Cascades National Park, Ross Lake National Recreation Area, Lake Chelan National Recreation Area," June 1969, administrative files, file N22, NOCA.

⁵Roger J. Contor, "Natural Area Management in Our Wildest National Park," paper presented to the Northwest Scientific Association Symposium on Natural Areas, Salem, Oregon, March 27-28, 1970, dated March 12, 1970, administrative files, file N22, NOCA. Richard Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 235.

⁶Master Plan, 28.

⁷Contor, "Natural Area Management in Our Wildest National Park."

⁸The actual approval date for some of the park complex's research natural areas seems to be missing from the record. Of these areas, Ridley Lake was never approved, and over the years several more were added. These are Stetattle Creek RNA and Big Beaver Creek RNA. It should be noted that one of the first research natural areas proposed was Big Beaver Valley, a site recommended from the Forest Service--since their research natural areas were a product of that agency. Big Beaver Valley, of course, got caught in the political web surrounding High Ross Dam and its designation was postponed. For a list of research natural areas in the park complex, see Robert Wasem to Superintendent Keith Miller, June 12, 1980, administrative files, file N22, North Cascades National Park Service Complex.

⁹Erwin N. Thompson, North Cascades National Park, Ross Lake National Recreation Area, and Lake Chelan National Recreation Area: History Basic Data (National Park Service: March 1970). Thompson's work as well as several other studies, such as historic structure reports, would serve as the kernel for the development of the park complex's cultural resource management program, which will be covered in greater detail in the following section.

¹⁰One would have thought given the severity of the project that the agency would have done more to protect special places like Big Beaver Valley. Roger Contor's reasoning for having it studied was to assess its ecological uniqueness. If it qualified as an irreplaceable natural environment, a laboratory of nature containing precious resources, he might have been able to use this to stall the High Ross project. But Sharpe noted that there were other places in the North Cascades where old growth western red cedar, could be found and thus the Big Beaver Valley was not "one of a kind" or the "last of a kind." On the other hand, Joe and Margaret Miller conducted an ecological survey of the valley and refuted statements such as these in their report. Certainly, there was enough evidence to suggest the valley's ecological value, but constrained by law to not interfere with High Ross, the Park Service waited out the controversy, withholding any aggressive action to protect Ross Lake until the late 1970s and early 1980s. See chapter on High Ross for more discussion.

¹¹"North Cascades National Park Service Complex: Summary of Approved Natural Science Resource Studies Problems," December 1972, administrative files, file N22, NOCA.

¹²Robert Wasem to Superintendent Lowell White, March 15, 1971; Superintendent Lowell White to Regional Director, September 1, 1971, administrative files, file Y14, NOCA. The fire management plan was finished in 1972. See National Park Service, North Cascades National Park Service Complex: Resource Management Plan, 1981, N2-3.

¹³Wasem's other studies included inventorying human impacts to backcountry camps, stabilizing the windswept bed of Lake Chelan during winter draw downs using native plants, and rejuvenating woody browse plants on Winter Deer Range by cutting and burning.

¹⁴Personal interview with Lowell White, full cite. For a summary of White's policy, see Superintendent Lowell White to Albert L. Odmark, June 6, 1975, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹⁵Robert Wasem to Superintendent Lowell White, November 3, 1975, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹⁶See, for example, Albert L. Odmark to Superintendent Lowell White, June 26, 1975, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA. Robert Wasem learned that trout had been introduced into the park's lakes and adjacent lakes on Forest Service land by groups like the Hi-Lakers and Trailblazers but also by various unaffiliated groups and individuals including the Concrete football team--to get in shape--as well as the occasional game department fish hatchery manager without his superiors' knowledge.

¹⁷White to Odmark, June 6, 1975.

¹⁸Odmark to White, June 26, 1976.

¹⁹Douglas H. Fletcher to Robert Wasem, May 9, 1974, administrative files, file N1423, May 9, 1974, NOCA. It should be noted that the sport fishing organizations were the main constituents of the game department and thus the main supporters of its fish management program.

²⁰Superintendent Lowell White to Regional Director, November 3, 1975, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

²¹Park Biologist Bob Wasem wrote the policy variance for Superintendent White in the spring of 1975.

²²Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, Russell E. Dickenson to Associate Director, January 15, 1976, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

²³See, for example, Douglas H. Fletcher to Robert Wasem, August 25, 1976; Douglas H. Fletcher to Superintendent Lowell White, August 16, 1976; and C. Richard Neely to Regional Director, August 27, 1976, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA. Apparently, the variance was approved by telephone and never by written notification by the Washington office.

²⁴W.C. Quick, Acting Regional Director to Bruce H. Ransom, Jr., June 22, 1977, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

²⁵R. Gerald Wright, Wildlife Research and Management in the National Parks (Urbana: University of Illinois Press): 111-135.

²⁶Personal interview with Roger Contor. See also Superintendent Roger J. Contor to District Managers, August 4, 1969, administrative files, file N1615, NOCA.

²⁷North Cascades National Park Service Complex, "Bear Management Plan," July 1975. See also Superintendent's annual reports for the 1970s.

¹The most highly visible and disputed of these other projects was the Copper Creek project, which would have dammed Copper Creek near its confluence with the Skagit down river from the Gorge Dam. Proposed around the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Copper Creek project was eventually shelved by Seattle when a formidable opposition of tribes, environmentalists, and government entities arose to stop it. The dam would have been located in a very productive salmon-spawning area of the Skagit, which was also a highly popular spot for wintering bald eagles. Recent environmental legislation and Indian fishing rights weighed heavily in favor of the dam's opponents, and City Light suspended the project as a result. This topic will be covered in more detail in a later section. See Richard Rutz, "Relicensing the Skagit Project: The City of Seattle's Approach," George Wright Forum vol. 9, no. 2 (1992): 11-12.

²The project would have raised the height of Ross Dam by approximately 125 feet, completing the fourth stage in the dam's design. In addition, High Ross would have raised the level of Ross Lake from an elevation of 1,600 feet above sea level to approximately 1,725 feet above seal level.

³For a comprehensive account of the High Ross issue, see Jacqueline Krolopp Kirn, "The Skagit River-High Ross Dam Controversy: A Case Study of a Canadian-U.S. Transboundary Conflict and Negotiated Resolution," Master's Thesis, University of Washington, 1987. Other works include, David G. Kidney, "The Ross Dam Controversy: A Popular View of an International Environmental Dilemma," Master's thesis, University of Washington, 1975. Seattle City Light's official history of the controversy is The High Ross Treaty: Provisions and Benefits (Seattle: Seattle City Light, September 1985). The Vancouver Sun, October 26, 1970, for quotation.

⁴For treatments of the conflict as an international issue and changing environmental values, see the above citations. Other works of interest are Wesley Arden Dick, "When Dams Weren't Damned: The Public Power Crusade and Visions of the Good Life in the Pacific Northwest in the 1930s," Environmental Review 13 (Fall/Winter): 1989; Samuel P. Hayes, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Marilyn Dubasek, Wilderness Preservation: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Canada and the United States (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1990); and William R. Lowry, The Capacity for Wonder: Preserving National Parks (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1994).

⁵The 1936 Park, Parkway, and Recreation Area Study Act gave the agency the lead role in recreational planning across the nation. That year, the Park Service took over responsibility for Lake Mead at Boulder Dam. Richard W. Sellars, draft chapter on National Park Service recreation, in author's possession. For a brief summary of the Park Service's role in recreation, see Stephen R. Mark, "What Price Expansion? Dams Versus the National Park Concept," The George Wright Forum vol. 9, no. 2 (1992): 53-61. See also Donald C. Swain, "The National Park Service and the New Deal, 1933-1940," Pacific Historical Review 41 (August 1972): 312-332; Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1984): 45; John C. Miles, Guardians of the Parks: A History of the National Parks and Conservation Association (Washington, D.C.: Taylor and Francis, 1995): 88-95. Also valuable are Robert W. Righter, Crucible for Conservation: The Struggle for Grand Teton National Park (Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1982), 88-93, for a discussion of the National Park Association's opposition to adding Jackson Lake, a reservoir, to Grand Teton National Park, and Mark W.T. Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994): 31-34.

⁶Fore more information on the park's creation see the chapter on this subject. See also, Michael McCloskey, "Wilderness Movement at the Crossroad, 1945-1970," Pacific Historical Review 41 (August 1972): 350. See also Susan R. Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983).

⁷Roderick Nass, Wilderness and the American Mind 3rd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 161-181, 209-219, 227-237.

⁸For an insightful essay on the "persistence of wilderness" around a reservoir, see Jared Farmer, "Field Notes: Glen Canyon and the Persistence of Wilderness," Western Historical Quarterly 27 (Summer 1996); 211-222.

⁹Richard W. Sellars, "Manipulating Nature's Paradise: National Park Management under Stephen T. Mather, 1916-1929," Montana: The Magazine of Western History 43 (Spring 1993): 2-13. Alfred Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990). Some, of course, such as Robin Winks, would say that there is no paradox, that the agency's mandate is clearly preservation. Robin Winks, "Dispelling the Myth," National Parks (July/August 1996): 52-53.

¹⁰U.S. Department of Interior, Administrative Policies for Recreation Areas in the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1968): 9-10, 16. This handbook contains Udall's 1964 memorandum.

¹¹Public Law 90-544.

¹²U.S. Congress, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, Hearings on S. 1321, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967, 15.

¹³Brock Evans to Henry M. Jackson, November 25, 1969, Henry M. Jackson Papers, Acc#3560-4, file 91-17, University of Washington; John A. Rutter to R.J. Brooks, December 1, 1969, North Cascades Conservation Council Papers, Acc#1732-2, file 1-2, University of Washington. "North Cascades: A Wilderness Plan," National Parks and Conservation Magazine: Environmental Journal (October 1970): 14; "North Cascades Dam Raises International Controversy," The Living Wilderness 34 (Summer 1970): 54.

¹⁴Brock Evans to Peter Le Sourd, January 7, 1969, North Cascades Conservation Council Papers, Acc#1732-2, file 1-1, University of Washington. Information on Seattle City Light and its influential leader, James D. Ross, can be found in Wesley Arden Dick, "Visions of Abundance: The Public Power Crusade in the Pacific Northwest in the Era of J.D. Ross and the New Deal," Ph.D., diss., University of Washington, 1973, 224-275. See also, Paul C. Pitzer, Building the Skagit: A Century of Upper Skagit Valley History, 1870-1970 (Portland: The Galley Press, 1978), 60-73. For City Light's vision of the Skagit Project in harmony with nature, I am indebted to Linda Nash's excellent paper, "The Changing Course of Nature: Historical Encounters with a Northwestern River," copy in author's possession.

¹⁵U.S. Congress, Senate, Hearings on S. 1321, 1967, 59. For Jackson's views, see, for example, Patrick D. Goldsworthy, "Protecting the North Cascades, 1954-1983," an oral history conducted by Ann Lage, in Pacific Northwest Conservationists, Regional Oral History Office, the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1986, 53.

¹⁶This is not to say that the Park Service did not care for the Big Beaver Valley or other natural areas in the flood zone. Reflecting on the issue, Superintendent Roger Contor, for example, noted that he and other Park Service officials knew they had to save Big Beaver. In fact, Contor attempted to have Big Beaver studied for designation as a Research Natural Area, something U.S. Forest Service ecologists had been suggesting prior to the park complex's creation. Later, Superintendent Lowell White testified before the Federal Power Commission that while his agency had not conducted any of its own studies, it had worked closely with researchers investigating the project's environmental consequences for wildlife, fish, and forest ecosystems. The problem with this, and other research into the environmental consequences of the project, was that experts for each side tended to cancel each other out. At the time, the forest ecologist who studied the Big Beaver suggested that there were other places outside the park where similar stands of old growth western red cedar could be found, and thus the uniqueness argument lost some of its strength. In addition, Contor pointed out that there were numerous issues facing the new parkland, High Ross being one of them, and others the Park Service had more control over. Eventually, the High Ross affair would be resolved in the park's favor, he believed, given enough time. For a general overview of arguments by environmental groups during the hearings, see Kidney, "The Ross Dam Controversy."

¹⁷McCloskey, "Wilderness at the Crossroads," 358-359, and Ernest M. Dickerman, "The National Park Wilderness Reviews: Lost in the Wilderness," The Living Wilderness 34 (Spring 1970): 40-49. Wilderness thresholds were an outgrowth of the Park Service's rather reluctant acceptance of the Wilderness Act in 1964, which the Park Service considered a distraction from its own preservation mission.

¹⁸U.S. Department of Interior, Administrative Policies for Natural Areas of the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1970), 33, 76-83. As Park Service Director George B. Hartzog, Jr., believed, the recreation areas in the North Cascades would help solve the overcrowded and overdeveloped conditions plaguing the nations' great parks. Hartzog's views on the management of North Cascades can be found in the congressional hearings. See, for example, Senate, Hearings on S. 1321, 1967, 22-23.

¹⁹Robert B. Moore to Gordon Vickery, August 9, 1972, administration files, file A3815, North Cascades National Park (NOCA). The park's High Ross files reveal how park managers and other agency officials came to this position as they worked with City Light on a variety of issues brought on by the new lake level. This tactic emerged out of negotiations agency officials conducted with City Light regarding their plans for recreational developments when the lake level was raised. These developments would replace existing docks, shoreline camps, part of the Hozomeen road, and trails inundated by the rising water.

²⁰"Direct Testimony of Stewart L. Udall before the Federal Power Commission," March 15, 1974; Press Release, Federal Power Commission, February 4, 1976; "Briefing Outline, High Ross Dam Issue, North Cascades National Park Service Complex," April 20, 1976, Lands, Water, and Recreation Planning, box 6, file 74, North Cascades National Park Service Complex Archives (NOCA Archives).

²¹For an insightful look at the Park Service policies towards recreation areas and threats to natural resources, see John C. Freemuth, Islands Under Siege: National Parks and the Politics of External Threats (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991), 37-84. An internal document produced by North Cascades park managers traces this evolution in thinking, too. "A Discussion of Laws Affecting the Administration of Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, administrative files, L76, NOCA.

²²Charles H. Odegaard to Daniel J. Tobin, Jr., October 27, 1980, administrative files, file A38, NOCA.

²³Seattle City Light, The High Ross Treaty, 1.

²⁴U.S. Congress, Senate, Report on Skagit River-Ross Dam Treaty, 96th Cong., 2d sess, June 21, 1984, 1-14; Treaty Between the United States of America and Canada Relating to the Skagit River and Ross Lake, and the Seven Mile Reservoir on the Pend Orielle River in the Province of British Columbia, April 2, 1984, United States-Canada, Senate Treaty Doc. 98-26. For a thorough analysis and discussion of the treaty, see Kirn, "The Skagit River-High Ross Dam Controversy," chapter 5.

²⁵This statement perhaps overdramatizes the situation, since the nature of power needs and production continually shift, and especially since the recent relicensing of the entire Skagit Project and other events have granted the agency more authority in dealing with City Light. For more coverage of the relicensing issue, see the relevant chapter in the next section of this study. See Jonathan B. Jarvis, "Relicensing the Skagit Project: The USNPS' Approach," George Wright Forum vol. 9, no. 2 (1992): 19-30.

¹Donald Worster, Under Western Skies: Nature and History in the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992): 79-92.

²Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 391-415.

³Susan E. Georgette and Ann H. Havery, Local Influence and the National Interest: Ten Years of National Park Service Administration in the Stehekin Valley, Washington: A Case Study, Publication No. 4, Environmental Field Program (Santa Cruz: University of California, 1980).

⁴Georgette and Harvey, Local Influence and the National Interest, 121-126.

⁵U.S. Department of the Interior, Administrative Policies for Recreation Areas in the National Park System (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1968), 9-10, 16.

⁶This is not to say that recreation area policies were the only policies that applied to Lake Chelan NRA. National Parks and recreation areas were governed by a number of laws and policies, ranging from those that guided the national park system to specific language pertaining to a particular park site.

⁷National Park Service, Master Plan: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington (National Park Service, November 1970), 25-26.

⁸Master Plan, 25.

⁹Robert E. Ratcliffe to John A. Rutter, May 11, 1970, administrative files, file L2415, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA). Superintendent Lowell White to Regional Director John A. Rutter, February 11, 1971.

¹⁰For a general overview of the Park Service's early operations in Stehekin, see the 1970 master plan and the "Land Acquisition Priority List, Stehekin Valley," June 1968, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA. More specific information can be found in the correspondence contained in the above file and sections of this history for concessions and road developments. It should be noted here that several of these purchases or changes of ownership that related to the landing and valley road were the subject of controversy, or at the very least were contested. The transfer of the valley road, for example, from Chelan County to the Park Service was contested because the agency poorly maintained the road in 1969 and 1970, and those bringing the suite believed the transfer had been illegal. More important, it seems the source of the lawsuit stemmed from the fact that the agency had not removed snow from the 1.6 miles of the Company Creek Road, which it had not acquired and considered a county road and a county responsibility. Eventually, the lawsuit was settled in favor of the Park Service. On April 30, 1973, the parties agreed to a judgment in which the Stehekin Property Owners Association would drop their suit contesting the legal transfer of the Stehekin Valley Road to the Park Service for an agreement that the agency would reasonably maintain the 1.6 miles of the Company Creek Road. See notes to files, Superintendent Lowell White, April 15, 1971, and Richard G. Jeffers to United States Department of the Interior, Office of the Solicitor, May 4, 1973, administrative files, file L3027, NOCA.

¹¹Keeping the roadsides scenically attractive had been a main theme in national park history. When the agency took over management of the Stehekin country it noticed that residents had filled in sections of the shoreline and had also excavated alongside the road causing erosion problems and visual scarring. Superintendent Contor, for example, discovered that Chelan County had granted residents a blanket authorization to take fill material from within the road right of way. Eliminating this, as much as possible, underlay the agency's interest in the Washington State Supreme Court's recent decision, Wilbour v. Gallagher (1969), which would empower them to protect shorelines--inland lakes and rivers--from "objectionable landfills and structures." See Ratcliffe to Rutter, May 11, 1970, and Superintendent Roger J. Contor to Regional Director John A. Rutter, January 28, 1970, administrative files, file L24, NOCA. See also Superintendent Roger J. Contor to Chelan County Commissioners, December 11, 1969, administrative files, file D30, NOCA.

¹²See footnote ten.

¹³Georgette and Harvey, Local Influence and the National Interest, 56-63. Personal interview with Lowell White, July 19, 1996.

¹⁴George F. Wagner to Superintendent Lowell White, September 30, 1971, administrative files, file L3015, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA).

¹⁵J.K. Blair (Forest Supervisor) to Donald E. Garvik, November 6, 1960, administrative files, file L38, NOCA.

¹⁶Roger J. Contor to files, May 29, 1969; Roger J. Contor to files, June 20, 1969, administrative files, file L38, NOCA. The agency's position on the airstrip can be followed in the reports of the North Cascades Reconnaissance Task Force meetings, March 16 and April 21, 1971. The Park Service seems to have agreed to continue the special use permit because the airport was an established use in the recreation area and small planes, landing and taking off within a recreation area, were considered compatible with recreation area policies.

¹⁷Stehekin Newsletter, September 24, 1971.

¹⁸The Conservation Foundation, National Parks for a New Generation: Visions, Realities, Prospects (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1985), 124, 251. See also, Joseph L. Sax, "Buying Scenery: Land Acquisitions for the National Park Service," Duke Law Journal 4 (1980): 714-715, cited in National Parks for a New Generation.

¹⁹Public Law 90-544, which created the park complex, contains language regarding land acquisition policies under Title III, Sections 301-303. Other information relevant to the agency's land acquisition policies can be found in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Authorizing the Establishment of North Cascades National Park, the Ross Lake National Recreation Area, the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area...and for Other Purposes, 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967, S. Rept. 700, 3-7. Hartzog's statement can be found in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, Hearings on S. 1321, A Bill to Establish North Cascades National Park..., 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967, 631. This testimony, one of several Hartzog gave, was incorporated into S. Rept. 700, 4.

²⁰These policies are set down in S. Rept. 700, 5-6.

²¹For the agency's interpretation of land acquisition in the park complex's recreation areas, see Roger W. Pegues to John Rutter, October 14, 1968, administrative files, file L58, NOCA.

²²National Park Service, Division of Lands, A Report by the National Park Service on the Past and Proposed Land Acquisitions in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area (Seattle: National Park Service, 1993), 6-19. This document, written in response to a Senate request, is an excellent summary of the Park Service's interpretation of its land acquisition program in Lake Chelan NRA.

²³Ibid. See also, "Land Acquisition Priority List, Stehekin Valley," June 1968, for names associated with the properties.

²⁴See, for example, Superintendent Roger J. Contor to Chief, Congressional Services (National Park Service), August 15, 1969, administrative files, file A3615, NOCA. Personal interview with Roger J. Contor and Lowell White.

²⁵Stehekin Newsletter, December 24, 1964, Interpretation and Information, box 4, file 8, North Cascades National Park Service Complex Archives (NOCA Archives).

²⁶Stehekin Newsletter, November 1970, box 4, file 8, NOCA Archives. In this newsletter Contor welcomes the formation of SPOA. He also addresses some of the tensions with the community, tensions which puzzled him because he believed that relations were good with Stehekin residents. It was apparent, however, that residents did not take a liking to many of the new policies, such as the parking regulations, which provided that overnight parking would have to be on private land away from the landing, a policy later changed.

²⁷Grant McConnell, "Five Years of National Park Service Administration in the North Cascades," The Wild Cascades (December/January 1973-1974): 9-11. McConnell's correspondence with the park administration was fairly extensive and provides a good record of a preservationist's perspective (as well as a Stehekin landowners' views) of Park Service policies. See, for example, Grant McConnell to Russell Dickenson, August 5, 1978, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

²⁸McConnell, "Five Years of National Park Service Administration in the North Cascades," 11-12.

²⁹McConnell, 13-14, quotation from 14.

³⁰"The Park That Ruffled the Calm Along Stehekin's Shore," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 28, 1973. Byrd's problems with the Park Service can be found in the section on concessions.

¹See, for example, "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1980," box 1, file 12; "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1974," box 1, file 6, North Cascades National Park Service Complex Archives (NOCA Archives). See also "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 1, 1994-September 30, 1995," administrative files, file A2621, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA).

²Lowell White to Regional Director, December 5, 1973, administrative files, file A80, NOCA.

³Russell E. Dickenson to Lloyd Meeds, March 31,1977, administrative files, file A8027, NOCA. "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1977," box 1, file 9, NOCA Archives. Personal interview with Lowell White, July 19, 1996.

⁴Doug Williams to J. Rouse, April 10, 1985, (telephone message record), administrative files, file A8027, NOCA; John Reynolds to Regional Director, July 2, 1987, administrative files, file A80, NOCA.

⁵John Reynolds to Acting Regional Director, April 29, 1986, administrative files, file A8027, NOCA.

⁶David Pugh to Regional Director, October 12, 1988; J.D. MacWilliams to Forest Supervisor, March 5, 1990, administrative files, file A8027, NOCA.

⁷John Reynolds to Regional Director, July 2, 1987. In the late 1980s, the park staff consisted of an archaeologist, geologist, aquatic ecologist, and cultural resource management specialist, to name some.

⁸Keith Miller to Regional Director, June 12,1979, administrative files, file A64, NOCA; "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1979," box 1, file 11, NOCA Archives.

⁹John Reynolds to Regional Director, August 30, 1988, administrative files, file A64, NOCA. Telephone interview with John Reynolds, October 21, 1996.

¹⁰Jerry Lee to Skagit District Manager, February 5, 1988, administrative files, file A64, NOCA.

¹¹Interview with Reynolds, October 21, 1996. John Earnst to Regional Director, December 28, 1988, administrative files, file A64, NOCA. "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1989," box 1, folder 21, NOCA Archives.

¹²"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex," 1993 and January 1, 1994-September 30, 1995, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

¹³"North Cascades 20: Direction to the Future," attached to Memorandum, Superintendent John Reynolds to Park Staff, September 18, 1985, administrative files, file A64, NOCA. (Hereafter cited as "North Cascades 20.")

¹⁴"North Cascades 20," 1-2.

¹⁵Ibid.

¹⁶Ibid., 3.

¹⁷John Reynolds to Ed [Wayburn], October 11, 1987, administrative files, no file code, NOCA.

¹⁸Briefing Statement, North Cascades National Park, April 4, 1988, administrative files, file D66, NOCA. Reynolds interview, October 21, 1996.

¹⁹Ibid.

²⁰Briefing Statement, North Cascades National Park, April 4, 1988, administrative files, file D66, NOCA. Reynolds interview, October 21, 1996, "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 1, 1994-September 30, 1995." Telephone interview with William Paleck, June 17, 1998.

¹The Conservation Foundation, National Parks for a New Generation: Visions, Realities, Prospects (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1985), 251.

²Philip S. Barnett, "The Mining in the Parks Act: Theory and Practice," in David J. Simon, ed. Our Common Lands: Defending the National Parks (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1988), 415.

³The Conservation Foundation, National Parks for a New Generation, 251.

⁴Ibid., 252-254.

⁵Ibid.

⁶Jerry W. Hammond, April 7, 1971, administrative files, file L1425, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA). Barnett, "The Mining in the Parks Act," 416-417.

⁷Keith M. Watkins to Regional Director, April 1, 1975, Lloyd Meeds Papers, box 63, file [North Cascades National Park], University of Washington.

⁸Watkins to Regional Director, April 1, 1975. Widing's visions of profit could be seen in his purchase of the claims on December 18, 1972, several months after the Park Service had completed its appraisals.

⁹John A. Rutter to Lloyd Meeds, December 4, 1975, administrative files, file L3023, NOCA. "Mining Claims Threaten Cascade Park Splendors," Seattle Times October 20, 1975.

¹⁰Rutter to Meeds, December 4, 1975.

¹¹Ibid. I have concluded that the mine owners were interested in the "threat" of mining as a way to force the government's hand from former Superintendent Lowell White. Personal interview with Lowell White, July 19, 1996. "Bid to Log in National Park Will Get Scrutiny," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 24, 1975.

¹²Rutter to Meeds, December 4, 1975.

¹³Public Law 94-578. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Providing for Increases in Appropriation Ceilings and Boundary Changes in Certain Units of the National Park System and for Other Purposes, Report to Accompany H.R. 13713, 94th Cong., 2d sess., H. Rept. 94-1162, May 13, 1976, 12.

¹⁴Barnett, "The Mining in the Parks Act," 416-417. Chelan Valley Mirror, March 9, 1977.

¹⁵"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1978," box 1, file 10, and "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1981," box 1, file 13, NOCA Archives.

¹⁶North Cascades National Park Service Complex, "Land Protection Plan: North Cascades National Park," 1983 (draft), 15-16. Lake Anne was an additional parcel lying on the park's boundary; the rest of it lay within national forest. Around ten acres of it was within the park. According to the 1990 land protection plan, the parcel was no longer a factor, apparently having been purchased or acquired in some other way by the Forest Service.

¹⁷North Cascades National Park Service Complex, "Land Protection Plan: North Cascades National Park," 1990, appendix D. Conversation with Dan Allen.

¹⁸Gretchen A. Luxenberg, Historic Resource Study: North Cascades National Park Service Complex (Seattle: National Park Service, 1986), 217.

¹⁹William C. and John C. Webster to Stockholders of Thunder Creek Silver-Lead Mines Inc., July 30, 1981; National Park Service telephone log, October 1, 1970; "Short-Form Appraisal Report, Tract No. 02-103," August 25, 1978; [Eastman Appraisal], September 27, 1978; file L1425, Webster file, Lands Division, Seattle Support Office, National Park Service. (Hereafter cited as Webster file).

²⁰Luther Clemmer, "Comments on George Wheaton's Appraisal of Mineral Interest in the Patented Dorothy Mine...NOCA," attached to Memorandum, Robert D. Higgins to Regional Director, May 23, 1984, file 480, Thunder Creek Silver-Lead Mines files, Lands Division, Seattle Support Office, National Park Service.

²¹See, for example, Dan Allen to David Malsed, May 25, 1984, file Y34, Webster file.

²²Barnett, "The Mining in the Parks Act," 417.

²³James Rouse to Regional Director, July 1, 1985; William J. Briggle to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, July 9, 1985, file L1415, Webster file.

²⁴Harlan F. Hobbs to William C. Webster, August 30, 1985, file L1425.

²⁵John Reynolds to William Webster, June 17, 1986, file L30.

²⁶William C. Webster to John J. Reynolds, July 24, 1986, Webster file.

²⁷C. Richard Neely to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, October 21, 1986, file NPS.PN.0282.

²⁸Harlan F. Hobbs to William C. Webster, January 27, 1987, file L1425.

²⁹Harlan F. Hobbs to John C. Webster, September 14, 1987, file L1425.

³⁰William C. Webster to Internal Revenue Service, October 22, 1987; Michael J. Montemurro to William C. Webster, May 3, 1988, Webster file.

³¹Although the record is note clear, it seems that the venture failed because it involved satisfying Park Service requirements, especially since this section of the park had been officially designated wilderness in 1988. It also involved meeting the requirements of Skagit Count--such as permits for land use and sewage systems.

³²William C. Webster to Bruce F. Vento, August 10, 1990, Webster file.

³³William C. Webster to John Earnst, September 18, 1991, Webster files.

³⁴Dan Allen to Rick Wagner, February 26, 1992, [no file code], Webster file. Rick Wagner, notes on telephone conversation with William Webster, April 15, 1992, Webster file.

³⁵Wagner telephone notes.

³⁶William F. Paleck to Thomas A. Larson, et al., March 26, 1993, file L3015, Webster file.

³⁷Ibid.

³⁸William C. Webster to William F. Paleck, August 25, 1993, Webster file.

³⁹William C. Webster to William F. Paleck, June 29, 1994; William F. Paleck to William C. Webster, August 9, 1994, file L3015, Webster file.

⁴⁰William C. Walters to Jim Ramstad, May 11, 1994, file L1425; Webster to CBS, "60 Minutes," fax transmittal with attachments, June 2, 1995, Webster file.

⁴¹William F. Paleck to Harold Fardal, July 15, 1997, file L1425; William F. Paleck to William C. Webster, December 1, 1996, file L1425, Webster file. Quotation from Paleck to Webster.

⁴²Harvey Manning, Conservation and Conflict: The U.S. Forest Service and National Park Service in the North Cascades, 1892-1992 (Seattle: North Cascades Conservation Council, June 1992), 143-146. Susan E. Georgette and Ann H. Harvey, Local Influences and the National Interest: Ten Years of National Park Service Administration in the Stehekin Valley, Washington: A Case Study (Santa Cruz: Publication No. 4, Environmental Field Program, University of California Santa Cruz, 1980), 46-47.

⁴³Harvey Manning, Conservation and Conflict, 144.

⁴⁴Georgette and Harvey, Local Influence and the National Interest, 83-85.

⁴⁵Ibid., 86-87. "Stehekin Valley Public Workshop Summary," November 1977, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁴⁶The Conservation Foundation, National Parks for a New Generation: Visions, Realities, Prospects (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1985), 251-252. See also, Keith E. Miller to Mr. and Mrs. Stuart B. Avery, Jr., October 2, 1978, administrative files, file L14, NOCA.

⁴⁷Chelan County Commissioners to Lowell White, June 20, 1978, administrative files, file L14; National Park Service, "Land Acquisition," Management Policies of the National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, September 1977, attached to Lowell White to [Stehekin Residents], May 1, 1978, administrative files, file L14, NOCA. Quote from Georgette and Harvey, 88. Barry Mackintosh, The National Parks: Shaping the System (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1991), 89-90.

⁴⁸The Conservation Foundation, National Parks for a New Generation, 254. See also NPIA material attached to White to Regional Director, May 5, 1978, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁴⁹Russell E. Dickenson to Director, January 24, 1978, administrative files, file L1415, NOCA. Lowell White to Regional Director, May 5, 1978.

⁵⁰Lowell White to [Stehekin Residents], May 1, 1978, administrative files, file L14; "Stehekin Valley, Lake Chelan National Recreation Area: Land Acquisition Discussion," May 1, 1978, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁵¹Chelan County Planning Department, "Chelan County Planning Notes," October 12, 1978.

⁵²Quoted from Georgette and Harvey, Local Influence and the National Interest, 97.

⁵³Chelan County Planning Department, Stehekin Plan (Draft), 1979, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁵⁴Superintendent's Annual Report, 1979 and 1980. Stehekin Plan, 55.

⁵⁵"Statement of Russell E. Dickenson, Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, National Park Service, at Chelan County Planning Commission Meeting," October 6, 1979, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁵⁶Ibid.

⁵⁷Ibid.

⁵⁸Ibid.

⁵⁹Russell E. Dickenson to Michael R. Sherwood, November 2, 1979, administrative files, file A6423, NOCA.

⁶⁰William S. Curtiss to Russell Dickenson, July 9, 1979, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁶¹Curtiss to Dickenson, July 9, 1979. Grant McConnell to Russell Dickenson, August 5, 1978; Russell Dickenson to Grant McConnell, September 1, 1978, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁶²Curtiss to Dickenson, July 9, 1979.

⁶³Ibid.

⁶⁴Dickenson to Sherwood, November 2, 1979.

⁶⁵National Park Service, A Report by the National Park Service on the Past and Proposed Land Acquisitions in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, April 1, 1993, 22.

⁶⁶The GAO offered a more specific reason for selecting Lake Chelan NRA. After its review of the agency's land acquisition program, the GAO discovered that the interpretation of a park's legislation was often the source of conflicts about the Park Service's acquisition practices. The GAO's analysis of legislation for new park areas drew it to the North Cascades complex, "where interpretation of legislation is a valid point of contention." Roy J. Kirk to Russell E. Dickenson, February 21, 1980, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁶⁷General Accounting Office, Lands in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area Should Be Returned to Private Ownership, January 22,1981.

⁶⁸Ibid., i-v.

⁶⁹"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex," 1980.

⁷⁰Kirk to Dickenson, February 21, 1980; Charles S. Cotton to Stehekin Landowner, c. 1981; The Byrd's Stehekin Country Services, Newsletter, May 30, 1980, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁷¹Daniel J. Tobin to Director, National Park Service, October 2, 1980, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA. See attachments to this report.

⁷²Tobin to Director, October 2, 1980.

⁷³Daniel J. Tobin to Director, National Park Service, March 16, 1981, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁷⁴Robert Byrd to James Watt, February 24, 1981, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA. Denver Service Center, Planning Newsletter, c. 1992.

⁷⁵Daniel J. Tobin, Jr., to Friends of Stehekin, August 6, 1982, file L7617, attached to "Standards for the Compatible Use of Land in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, Stehekin," administrative files, Lands Division. In same file see correspondence which reveals some pressure on NPS to do new standards. Russell E. Dickenson to Senator Alan Cranston, July 2, 1981, file L1425; Director, National Park Service to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, September 1, 1981, file L7617.

⁷⁶According to the agency's solicitor, the agency could not enforce its standard.

⁷⁷This is not to say that the Forest Service did not regulate use of the lands under its jurisdiction prior to the establishment of the recreation area. The Forest Service's approach to land management was utilitarian, however, and the Park Service's approach was based on a tradition of scenic preservation, once which sought to exclude resource extraction.

⁷⁸Ray Courtney to Denver Service Center, Stehekin Valley Planning Team, February 13, 1978, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁷⁹Rob Carson, "Stehekin: Beauty, Solitude, and the Illusion of Serenity," Pacific Northwest Magazine, September 1984, 30.

⁸⁰Ibid. See also Stehekin in concessions file.

⁸¹Stehekin Heritage Defense Committee, Newsletter, c. January 1985, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁸²"Claims for Relief, Stehekin Heritage Defense Committee," get full cite.

⁸³Stehekin Heritage Defense Committee, et al. v. William C. Clark, et al., August 6, 1985. Judge McNichols dismissed Courtney's claim that the Park Service had threatened to condemn his property if he did not sell, because federal law states that an action contesting the government's title to real property should take place within twelve years of the date the title is acquired. According to Judge McNichol's, at this late date Courtney was contending that he was "fraudulently induced to sell." And in such cases, the federal government has "specifically declined to waive sovereign immunity." Courtney's claim does not seem as concrete as he stated. He offered his property to the Park Service first in January 1969, but years later claimed the agency harassed him into selling that summer. It should also be noted that Courtney was not considered an official plaintiff, either, having added his name to the suit too late. See Curt Courtney to Roger J. Contor, January 29, 1969, administrative files, file L1425, Lands Division; "Former Lodge Owner No 'Willing Seller' to Park Service," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, August 4, 1992. s

⁸⁴News Release, Stehekin Heritage Defense Committee, October 7, 1985; Newsletter, Stehekin Heritage Defense Committee, October 1985, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁸⁵Esther Courtney, [form letter], November 28, 1984, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁸⁶Grant McConnell to William Penn Mott, August 19, 1985, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁸⁷Ibid. Patrick D. Goldsworthy to Dan Evans, August 31, 1985; Patricia Hammett, August 17, 1985, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁸⁸John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, March 31, 1987, administrative files, file A6419, NOCA.

⁸⁹National Park Service, "Land Protection Plan for Lake Chelan National Recreation Area," 1988.

⁹⁰"Land Acquisition Plan," and National Park Service, A Report By the National Park Service on the Past and Proposed Land Acquisitions in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, April 1993, 27-31.

⁹¹John J. Reynolds, "Summary of National Park Service Actions Re: 1981 GAO Report on Lake Chelan NRA Land Acquisition," May 30, 1988, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA. See also John S. Wall to James Watt, February 24, 1981, administrative files, file L3215, NOCA.

⁹²Manning, Conservation and Conflict, 157-165.

⁹³John Reynolds to Ed [Wayburn], October 11, 1987, administrative files, no file code, NOCA.

⁹⁴Manning, Conservation and Conflict, 165-168. Although the lawsuit was filed on the legal point of lack of compliance with NEPA regulations, a deeper issue was that the Park Service was not conducting planning with appropriate baseline information. As part of the negotiated consent decree, mentioned below, Resource Management Chief Jonathan Jarvis saw that the collection of baseline information was included as a way to get his own agency to collect date.

⁹⁵North Cascades Conservation Council v. Manuel Lujan, et al., April 22, 1991.

⁹⁶Quoted in Manning, 167-168.

⁹⁷Personal interview with William Paleck, April 17, 1998.

⁹⁸"Gorton Rips Stehekin Land Buys," Lake Chelan Mirror, March 18, 1992; News Release, "Gorton Meets with National Park Service about Unabated Land Acquisitions in Stehekin Area," March 12, 1992; Sylvia Thorpe to Senator Slade Gorton, January 1, 1993, Lands Division files, file: Past and Proposed Land Acquisitions in LACH, Columbia Cascades Support Office (CCSO).

⁹⁹Slade Gorton to Robert C. Byrd, May 15, 1992; David Fluharty to William Paleck, November 16, 1992; Issue Paper, November 30, 1992, Lands Division files, file: Past and Proposed Land Acquisition in LACH, CCSO.

¹⁰⁰Fluharty to Paleck, November 16, 1992.

¹⁰¹"A Discussion of Laws Affecting the Administration of Lake Chelan National Recreation Area," May 13, 1992, administrative files, file L76, NOCA.

¹⁰²A Report...On the Past and Proposed Land Acquisitions in the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, 35-39.

¹⁰³Personal interview with William Paleck.

¹⁰⁴Roger J. Contor, "Draft Management Statement for Ross Lake National Recreation Area," November 14, 1969, 9, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

¹⁰⁵North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Ross Lake National Recreation Area Land Protection Plan (Denver: National Park Service, 1985). Material here and below is drawn from this report.

¹⁰⁶"1987, Addendum to Land Protection Plan for Ross Lake National Recreation Area, Washington"; Charles H. Odegaard to Associate Director, December 17, 1993, Ross Lake National Recreation Area (Land Protection Plan) files, file D18, Lands Division.

¹Roger J. Contor to John M. Nelson, April 17, 1970, administrative files, file A38; Rod Pegeus to John Rutter, December 21, 1971, administrative files, file A3815, North Cascades National Park Service Complex.

²City Light's license for the Skagit Project expired on October 27, 1977.

³Daniel J. Tobin to Superintendent, April 23, 1984, administrative files, file L30, NOCA.

⁴Daniel J. Tobin to Regional Solicitor, February 22, 1985, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁵Richard Rutz, "Relicensing the Skagit Project: The City of Seattle's Approach," The George Wright Forum vol. 9, no. 2 (1992): 12.

⁶Rutz, "Relicensing the Skagit Project," 12.

⁷Rutz, 11-12.

⁸"Seattle Goes Ahead with Copper Creek," Skagit Valley Herald, October 30, 1979; "Studies Say Dam Would Endanger Bald Eagles," Skagit Valley Herald, July 11, 1980; "Conservation Cheaper, Copper Creek Study Finds," Seattle Times, January 15, 1981. "Notice of Surrender of Preliminary Permit, Copper Creek Project No. 2795," August 5, 1981, administrative files, file A3815, NOCA.

⁹David Fluharty and Patrick Goldsworthy to Randall Hardy, November 29, 1985; Randall W. Hardy to North Cascades Conservation Council, April 28, 1986, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

¹⁰Richard L. Winters to Associate Director, National Park Service, June 3, 1986, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

¹¹John J. Reynolds to Randall W. Hardy, August 31, 1987; Dean L. Shumway to Randall W. Hardy, October 31, 1988, administrative files, file A3815, NOCA.

¹²Jon Jarvis to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 13, 1989, administrative files, file A3815, NOCA.

¹³Jarvis to Superintendent, January 13, 1989.

¹⁴Jonathan B. Jarvis, "Relicensing the Skagit: USNPS' Approach," The George Wright Forum vol. 9, no. 2 (1992): 20-21. Personal interview with Jon Jarvis, July 11, 1996. Unless otherwise noted, the paragraphs below are drawn from these sources.

¹⁵The fisheries studies funded by Seattle City Light looked primarily at ways to resolve problems with rapid fluctuations in river levels created by discharges from the Gorge Powerhouse.

¹⁶Charles H. Odegaard to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, August 20, 1990; "Preliminary Agreement--Skagit River Hydroelectric Project No. 533," September 30, 1990, administrative files, file L7619, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, FERC No. 533, Columbia Cascades Support Office (CCSO). City of Seattle, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, FERC No. 533, Offer of Settlement, April 1, 1991, 1-4. Charles H. Odegaard to Director, National Park Service, May 1, 1991; Seattle City Light News Release, June 3, 1991, administrative files, file H30, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO. The City of Seattle drafted an agreement with the Nlaka'pamux Nation in March 1992 which focused on traditional cultural properties. Ultimately , it seems that the First Nation's presence in the proceedings was more of an advisory role. City Light allowed them to join even though they did not have legal standing as a way to keep the process in motion. Moreover, none of the federal agencies signed the agreement between the city and the Indian group because it would have constituted an international treaty and required State Department involvement. Personal interview with William Paleck, April 17, 1998. See also Susan K. Driver to Charles Odegaard, March 13, 1992, administrative files, Cultural Resources Division, Columbia Cascades Support Office.

¹⁷Offer of Settlement, 6-19.

¹⁸Personal Interview with Jon Jarvis, July 11, 1996.

¹⁹Keith Kurko to Ron Hyra, January 25, 1991, facsimile transmittal, administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²⁰Charles H. Odegaard to Lois Cashell, February 20, 1991, administrative files, file L7619, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²¹"FERC Issues Cumulative Assessments of Skagit, Nooksack Basins," Hydro-Wire, January 13, 1992, in administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²²Barbara Scott-Brier to Lois D. Cashell, April 19, 1994, administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²³Seattle City Light, et al., to the Commissioners, May 12, 1995; George T. Frampton, Jr., to Elizabeth Anne Moler, May 15, 1995, administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²⁴Elizabeth A. Moler to Norman B. Rice, May 24, 1995, administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²⁵William H. Patton to Lois Cashell, June 14, 1995, administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²⁶United States of America, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, "Order on Rehearing," City of Seattle, Project No. 553-024, -025, June 26, 1996.

²⁷"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1993," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

²⁸North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Briefing Statement, January 17, 1995, administrative files, Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

²⁹Technically, the park got the services of an archaeologist for the archaeological survey and evaluation as part of the mitigation negotiation and agreement. Until the professionalization initiative of the mid-1990s, the archaeologist's position was in the regional office and duty-stationed at the park.

³⁰Jarvis interview.

³¹Seattle had protested the Federal Power Commission's decision to grant it a license for twenty-five years instead of fifty, delaying the license. United States of America, Federal Power Commission, "Order Denying Application for Rehearing, Project No. 2705," March 21, 1975.

³²Barbara Scott-Brier to Bill Walters, July 31, 1995, administrative files, Newhalem Creek Hydroelectric Project, CCSO.

³³Barbara Scott-Brier to Bill Walters, July 31, 1995.

³⁴United States of America, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, "Final Environmental Assessment for Hydropower Licenses, Newhalem Creek Hydroelectric Project," November 22, 1996.

³⁵Ibid.

³⁶United States of America, Federal Energy and Regulatory Commission, "Order Issuing License, Project No. 2705," February 7, 1997.

³⁷F. Lorraine Bodi, "Hydropower, Dams, and the National Parks," in David J. Simon, ed., Our Common Lands: Defending the National Parks (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1988), 449-450.

³⁸Daniel L. Allen to Superintendent, November 13, 1987, administrative files, file L54, NOCA.

³⁹Bodi, "Hydropower, Dams, and the National Parks," 452. Keith E. Miller to Regional Director, May 28, 1981, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁴⁰David A. Watts to Regional Director, July 30, 1981, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁴¹Allen to Superintendent, November 13, 1987; Keith E. Miller to Regional Director, June 14, 1982, administrative files, file L54, NOCA.

⁴²Richard L. Winters to Keith E. Miller, June 23, 1982, administrative files, file L7617, NOCA.

⁴³Gina Guy to Regional Director, May 12, 1983, attached to Daniel R. Kuehn to Associate Director, May 20, 1983, administrative files, file W1823, NOCA.

⁴⁴Allen to Superintendent, November 13, 1987. C. Richard Neely to Regional Director, July 5, 1983; Daniel J. Tobin, Jr., to C. Richard Neely, July 13, 1983, administrative files, file L7617, NOCA. Durning, Webster, and Lonnquist to Keith E. Miller, August 16, 1983, administrative files, file L7617, NOCA.

⁴⁵Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, to Director, National Park Service, August 25, 1983, administrative files, file L30, NOCA. David A. Watts to Director, November 4, 1983, administrative files, file L7617, NOCA.

⁴⁶Watts to Director, November 4, 1983.

⁴⁷"Proposed FONSI--Thornton and Damnation Creeks," attached to C. Richard Neely to Associate Regional Director, October 7, 1983, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁴⁸C. Richard Neely to Daniel J. Tobin, Jr., June 8, 1994, attached to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, to Director, National Park Service, June 26, 1984, administrative files, file L7617, NOCA.

⁴⁹Allen to Superintendent, November 13, 1987, and telephone interview January 14, 1998. The Birch Creek Project's license was approved eventually, it seems.

⁵⁰Ibid.

⁵¹Motions of intervention can be found in administrative files, file L7617, NOCA.

⁵²Charles S. Polityka to Kenneth F. Plumb, October 9, 1985; Charles S. Polityka to Kenneth F. Plumb, November 25, 1985, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁵³C. Richard Neely to Regional Director, September 9, 1986, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁵⁴David A. Watts to Director, July 24, 1987, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA. See also, Charles H. Odegaard to Superintendent, September 3, 1987, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁵⁵Allen to Superintendent, November 13, 1987.

⁵⁶Charles H. Odegaard to Kenneth Plumb, January 6, 1988, administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁵⁷Fred E. Springer to William L. Devine, June 22, 1988 (two letters), administrative files, file L7619, NOCA.

⁵⁸102 Stat. 3961.

⁵⁹50 FERC 61,087 (Damnation Peak Power Company, Project No. 4435-008), Order Denying Appeal, January 26, 1990; 50 FERC 61,086 (Thornton Lake Resource Company, Project No. 4412-008), Order Denying Appeal, January 26, 1990, attached to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, to Regional Director, February 5, 1990, administrative files, file L54, NOCA.

⁶⁰When the Chelan County PUD applied for a minor hydropower license with the Federal Power Commission in 1966, the year it was to construct the plant, it withdrew the application and secured a special use permit from the Forest Service instead. Under authority of the power commission, the Forest Service could grant permits for such small projects. Copy of application and FERC ruling on file at North Cascades National Park.

⁶¹Rod Pegues to John Rutter, December 22, 1971, administrative files, file A3815, NOCA. Richard L. Winters to Stan Young and Mike Wright, December 4, 1974, administrative files, file L7619, Lake Chelan Hydro Project, FERC No. 637, National Park Service, Columbia Cascades Support Office (CCSO).

⁶²Maurice H. Lundy to Director, July 15, 1977, administrative files, file L7619, CCSO.

⁶³Gene L. Drais to Files, July 28, 1977, administrative files, file L7619, CCSO.

⁶⁴Drais to Files, July 28, 1977.

⁶⁵Roger Purdom to Reviewers, February 2, 1983, administrative files, file L7619, CCSO. (See attached Environmental Impact Statement.)

⁶⁶Telephone interview with Phil Campbell, January 27, 1998. Carol L. Sampson to Gregg Carrington, July 6, 1988, administrative files, file L7619, CCSO.

¹Richard W. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 204-266. Sellars, 235, notes in error that the discussions for the first cooperative park study unit emerged out of hearings held on the establishment of North Cascades in 1970. Since the park was established in 1968, it is more likely that the discussion took place during the 1967-68 hearings and that the University of Washington research center was established in 1970.

²Richard Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 262-265.

³Sellars, 267-269.

⁴In its final form the policy variance permitted periodic trout stocking in naturally fishless lakes if habitat conditions were suitable and the lake had been stocked prior to October 2, 1968. Prior to any stocking, an ecological survey had to be carried out and the lake classified.

⁵John A. Rutter to Associate Director, National Park Service, November 18, 1975, administrative files, file N1423, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA). The policy variance was granted on September 13, 1979. See William J. Briggle to Director, National Park Service, November 5, 1985, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

⁶The recreation area policies were considered adequate at this time.

⁷John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, June 28, 1985; Daniel J. Tobin, Jr., to Jack S. Wayland, July 18, 1985, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA. Personal interview with John J. Reynolds, October 21,1996.

⁸David A. Watts to Director, National Park Service, December 13, 1985, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

⁹Jack S. Wayland to Ray Duff, et al., May 20, 1986, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹⁰William Penn Mott, Jr., to Acting Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, June 12, 1986, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹¹William Penn Mott, Jr., to Acting Regional Director, June 12, 1986.

¹²William J. Briggle to Jack Wayland, June 27, 1986, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹³Jack S. Wayland to William Mott, Jr., July 15, 1986, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹⁴Charles H. Odegaard to Director, National Park Service, December 15, 1987, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA. "'Flying' Fish to Start Fur Flying Between Agencies," Seattle Times, October 27, 1987. National Park Service issue brief, October 23, 1987, administrative files, file N1423, NOCA.

¹⁵In order to enjoin the state, the park needed the assistant secretary's permission, and hence another reason for his involvement.

¹⁶William P. Horn to Jerry Neal, April 28, 1988, administrative files, file N1619, NOCA.

¹⁷The agreement was helped in other ways. The governor replaced Wayland with a more reasonable commissioner in January 1988. The new commissioner sought legal advice and realized the state would lose if they went to court over the issue (see Kleppe v. New Mexico), so he sought an agreement.

¹⁸Statement for Management: North Cascades National Park Service Complex (May 1989), 35-36.

¹⁹North Cascades National Park Service Complex, State of the Mather Wilderness, 1994 (Sedro Woolley: National Park Service, 1994) 4-6.

²⁰Unless otherwise noted, the following information comes from a telephone conversation with Reed Glesne, March 5, 1998.

²¹North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Resource Management Plan: North Cascades National Park Service Complex (February 15, 1994), 91. Throughout this chapter I have summarized information on the park's resource management programs in this plan which provides a topical summary of each program.

²²There is some evidence that at least one species of salmon made it through the gorge. Bull trout and other native fish which colonized the upper reaches of the Skagit made it past thousands of years ago.

²³This point deserves some clarification. It is true that the legislation accommodates Stehekin residents, but the language of the legislation was originally drafted for Ross Lake NRA and adapted for Stehekin once it was decided to make it part of a recreation area and not part of the national park.

²⁴Grant McConnell to Lowell White, January 20, 1972, administrative files, file N16, NOCA.

²⁵Robert Wasem to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, December 6, 1978, administrative files, file N16, NOCA.

²⁶Keith Miller to Regional Director, February 14, 1979, administrative files, file N16, NOCA.

²⁷Oliver D. Chadwick and Bruce C. Larson, Forest Resource Survey and Related Consumptive Use of Firewood in Lower Stehekin Valley, North Cascades National Park Complex (Seattle: College of Forest Resources, University of Washington, October 1981), 135.

²⁸John J. Reynolds to Tom Courtney, December 31, 1985, administrative files, file Y38, NOCA.

²⁹John J. Reynolds to Tom Courtney, December 31, 1985; Curt Sauer to Files, January 15, 1986, administrative files, file Y34, NOCA.

³⁰Director, National Park Service, to Senator Daniel J. Evans, February 3, 1986, draft letter, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

³¹John J. Reynolds, "Decision Notice: Firewood Management Plan, Lake Chelan National Recreation Area," September 2, 1987, administrative files, file Y34, NOCA. North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Environmental Assessment and Firewood Management Plan for Stehekin Valley: Lake Chelan NRA (May 1987), 18-19.

³²Reynolds, "Decision Notice," September 2, 1987, 1-2.

³³National Park Service, Forest Fuel Reduction/Firewood Management Plan: Stehekin Valley, Lake Chelan National Recreation Area (Denver: National Park Service, June 1995), 79-83.

³⁴Draft Policy Analysis of Public Law 90-544, administrative files, file N16, NOCA, 18.

³⁵Miller's 1979 decision is recorded in Keith E. Miller to District Ranger, Stehekin District, February 3, 1983, administrative files, file L30, NOCA. Miller's soil borrow management plan can be found in Keith E. Miller to District Ranger, Stehekin District, August 31, 1981, administrative files, file L30, NOCA. An expanded version was produced in 1983.

³⁶Keith E. Miller to District Ranger, Stehekin District, February 3, 1983; Keith E. Miller to Roberta R. Pitts, October 8, 1981, administrative files, file L30, NOCA.

³⁷National Park Service, Environmental Assessment: Mineral Leasing Regulations (Denver: National Park Service, September 1980). Mary Ann Grasser to Assistant Manager, Western Team, Denver Service Center, June 26, 1987, administrative files, file N16, NOCA.

³⁸John J. Reynolds to Stehekin Residents and Landowners, June 25, 1987, administrative files, file N16, NOCA.

³⁹Public Law 100-668; 102 Stat. 3961. The North Cascades legislation pertaining to mineral resources is found in Title II, Section 206, of the law.

⁴⁰Communication with Jonathan B. Jarvis, March 18, 199.

⁴¹National Park Service, Sand, Rock, and Gravel Plan: Lake Chelan National Recreation Area (Denver: National Park Service, June 1995), 3-6.

⁴²North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Resource Management Plan, 1994, 124-125.

⁴³Ibid. Interview with Bob Kuntz, park biologist, May 30, 1998.

⁴⁴Richard G. Jeffers to Roger Contor, March 30, 1970, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁴⁵George Wagner to Roger Contor, April 7, 1979, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁴⁶Richard G. Jeffers to Lowell White, November 2, 1972; Lowell White to Richard G. Jeffers, November 8, 1972; Richard G. Jeffers to Lowell White, November 22, 1972, administrative files, file L1425, NOCA.

⁴⁷Robert B. Moore to Dan Campbell, April 24, 1973, administrative files, file A38, NOCA.

⁴⁸Edward J. Kurtz to Henry M. Jackson, July 6, 1973, administrative files, file A38, NOCA.

⁴⁹Noel R. Poe to Dan Allen, October 13, 1982, administrative files, file D3219, NOCA.

⁵⁰Charles H. Odegaard to Dan C. Campbell, November 28, 1990, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

⁵¹National Park Service, Final General Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement; Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, vol. I (Denver: National Park Service, 1995), iv.

⁵²North Cascades National Park, Resource Management Plan, 1994, 110-112.

⁵³Almack, J.A., et al., North Cascades Grizzly Bear Ecosystem Evaluation, Final Report (Denver: Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee, 1993).

⁵⁴Ibid.

⁵⁵William J. Briggle to Brock Adams, October 26, 1988, administrative files, file N1615, NOCA. "Plan for Grizzlies Now Has Little Bite," Seattle Times, December 14, 1994.

⁵⁶Richard Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 276.

⁵⁷Bruce L. Smith, "Status of Management of Mountain Goats in North Cascades National Park Service Complex," October 15, 1976, administrative files, file N22, NOCA. See also, "Lake Chelan Mountain Goat Transplant," undated, unattributed typescript in same file.

⁵⁸North Cascades National Park, Resource Management Plan, 1994, 104-112. Interview with Bob Kuntz.

⁵⁹Personal interview with Daniel Allen, park resource specialist, June 16, 1998.

⁶⁰North Cascades National Park, Resource Management Plan, 1994, 126-130.

⁶¹National Park Service, Forest Fuel Reduction/Firewood Management Plan: Stehekin Valley, Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, 1-2.

⁶²On air quality in the Park Service, see, for example, David Joseph, "Air...A Natural Resource," Trends 27(4), (1990): 22-23.

⁶³North Cascades National Park, Resource Management Plan, 1994, 31-41.

⁶⁴Ibid.

⁶⁵Stephanie S. Toothman, "Cultural Resource Management in Natural Areas of the National Park System," The Public Historian 9 (Spring 1987): 66.

⁶⁶Personal interviews with Cultural Resource Division staff, Columbia Cascades Support Office, June 1998.

⁶⁷Ibid.

⁶⁸Jonathan Jarvis to Superintendent, May 23, 1988, administrative files, file H18, NOCA; John R. Earnst to Regional Director, October 24, 1988, administrative files, file A2623, NOCA. The current collections facility, with its administrative offices, was evidently preceded by another facility.

⁶⁹The fact that there was money from Seattle City Light to conduct archaeological surveys in the drawdown during relicensing was also key.

⁷⁰Personal interview with Robert Mierendorf, February 20, 1997.

⁷¹Stephanie S. Toothman and Robert R. Mierendorf, "Mitigating Hydroelectric Power Impacts on Cultural Resources," The George Wright Forum, vol. 9 (2) (1992): 31-38. Quotation from 37.

⁷²Mierendorf interview.

⁷³As part of the memorandum of understanding with Seattle City Light to assist in the documentation of cultural resources associated with and affected by the Skagit Project, the regional office cultural resource staff directed the preparation of National Register documentation and Historic American Engineering Record recordation of the Skagit Project. This technical assistance was carried out as part of the federal preservation program responsibilities of the Park Service under the 1996 National Historic Preservation Act.

⁷⁴Telephone interview with Jesse Kennedy, May 20, 1998.

¹Personal interview with John J. Reynolds, October 21, 1996.

²John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, November 12, 1987, administrative files, file D30, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA).

³National Park Service, General Management Plan: North Cascades National Park, Ross Lake National Recreation Area, Lake Chelan National Recreation Area (Denver: National Park Service, 1988), 19. (Hereafter cited as General Management Plan, 1988.)

⁴National Park Service, Development Concept Plan: North Cascades Highway and Cascade Pass (Denver: National Park Service, 1986), 1-7.

⁵Ibid.

⁶John Reynolds to Regional Director, November 12, 1987. Reynolds interview October 21, 1996.

⁷General Management Plan, 1988, 23. Reynolds interview.

⁸See Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex for the years 1989-1992, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

⁹Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex for the years 1975-1983.

¹⁰General Management Plan, 1988, 24.

¹¹General Management Plan, 1988, 23-24.

¹²Edgar Wayburn to John Reynolds, December 15, 1987, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

¹³National Park Service, "Comments Analysis: North Cascades Visitor Center, Environmental Learning Center, and Ross Lake/Happy Flat Overlook," c. 1989, administrative files, file D18, NOCA.

¹⁴John J. Reynolds to David Louter, October 29, 1998, administrative files, file H1417, NOCA.

¹⁵Henry M. Jackson Foundation Newsletter, September 1988; National Park Service, "Comments Analysis: North Cascades Visitor Center, Environmental Learning Center, and Ross Lake/Happy Flat Overlook." John J. Reynolds to Sara Schreiner Kendall, April 15, 1988, administrative files, file L47, NOCA.

¹⁶"Comments Analysis: North Cascades Visitor Center."

¹⁷David A. Pugh to Regional Director, October 6, 1988, administrative files, file K18, NOCA. See also, John J. Reynolds to Files, April 11, 1988, administrative files, file D66, NOCA. For a list of earlier proposed sites, see John R. Douglass, "Report of Visitor Center Team Meetings," September 5, 1985, administrative files, file A26, NOCA.

¹⁸David A. Pugh to Regional Director, October 6, 1988.

¹⁹Charles H. Odegaard to Under Secretary, Department of the Interior, January 25, 1989, administrative files, file D66, NOCA.

²⁰"Superintendent's Annual Report North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 1, 1994-September 30, 1995," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

²¹"Superintendent's Annual Report North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1993," and "Superintendent's Annual Narrative Report, January 1, 1994-September 30, 1995," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

²²"Superintendent's Annual Narrative Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1991," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

²³Personal interview with William F. Paleck, July 30, 1998.

²⁴In the text below I summarize and analyze these two documents: National Park Service, General Management Plan, 1988 and National Park Service, Final General Management Plan//Environmental Impact Statement: Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, vol. I (Denver: National Park Service, 1995). (Hereafter cited as General Management Plan, 1995.) See also National Park Service, Executive Summary--Final General Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement: Lake Chelan National Recreation Area (Denver: National Park Service, 1995). These texts consider the following implementation plans for sand, rock, and gravel; forest fuel reduction/firewood management; wilderness management; transportation; Stehekin Landing and Valley development; and land protection.

²⁵General Management Plan, 1988, 30.

²⁶Michael J. Tollefson to James N. Hall, June 22, 1993, administrative files, file D30, NOCA. Charles H. Odegaard to Superintendent, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, August 9, 1993, administrative files, file L7617, NOCA.

²⁷William F. Paleck to Sandy Walker, July 28, 1997, administrative files, file D30, NOCA.

²⁸See Chapter 8.

²⁹Harvey Manning to Daniel J. Tobin, August 22, 1984; Richard L. Winters to William H. Hamilton, October 26, 1984; William H. Hamilton to Richard L. Winters, November 28, 1984, administrative files, file L38, NOCA.

³⁰John J. Reynolds to William H. Hamilton, March 14, 1985; John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, January 19, 1988, administrative files, file L38, NOCA.

³¹General Management Plan, 1988, 31.

³²See, for example, "North Cascades Lodge" file in administrative files, file C38, NOCA. See also "North Cascades Lodge," in the annual concession performance evaluations for 1983-1989 in administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

³³Ibid.

³⁴"Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 1, 1994 to September 30, 1995," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

³⁵Hank Warren to Regional Chief of Interpretation, September 2, 1977, administrative files, file K18, NOCA.

³⁶See Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1980-1984, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

³⁷Personal interview with John Reynolds, October 21, 1996. "Superintendent's Annual Report for North Cascades National Park Service Complex," 1985, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

³⁸John J. Reynolds, "North Cascades 20: Direction to the Future," (draft) September 18, 1985, administrative files, file A64, NOCA.

³⁹Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1985-1991, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA. James S. Rouse to Staff Interpretive Specialist, March 31, 1988, administrative files, file K18, NOCA.

⁴⁰Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1989-1995, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

⁴¹See, for example, William F. Paleck to John Toof, August 31, 1995, administrative files, file A34, NOCA. This file contains the letters of complaint.

⁴²William F. Paleck to Steve and Barb Rincer, August 6, 1996; William C. Walters to Slade Gorton, January 9, 1998, administrative files, file A3615, NOCA.

⁴³See, for example, the Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex for 1980-1988, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

⁴⁴See, for example, the Superintendent's Annual Reports for North Cascades National Park Service Complex for 1989-1995, administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

¹1984 wilderness proposal attached to James S. Rouse to Regional Director, June 28, 1994, administrative files, file L48, NOCA. Briefing Statement: Proposed Wilderness Designation for North Cascades, March 15, 1988, administrative files, file L48, NOCA.

²Congressional Record--Senate, March 15, 1988, S2261.

³Personal interview with John J. Reynolds, October 21, 1996.

⁴Public Law 100-668; 102 Stat. 3961.

⁵Personal interview with Jonathan Jarvis, July 11, 1996.

⁶"Why Wilderness in Parks," and "Washington Parks Wilderness Act of 1988," The Wild Cascades (Summer 1988): 4-8.

⁷"Washington Parks Wilderness Act of 1988," 9-13.

⁸Ibid. Quotation from 13.

⁹John J. Reynolds to Sara Schreiner Kendall, April 15, 1988, administrative files, file L48, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA).

¹⁰Lillian Byerly to Sid Morrison, May 2, 1988; John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, May 23, 1988, administrative files, file L48, NOCA.

¹¹Reynolds to Regional Director, May 23, 1988.

¹²John R. Earnst to Dan Evans, December 16, 1988, administrative files, file L48, NOCA.

¹³Briefing statement, Stephen Mather Wilderness, c. 1988, administrative files, file L48, NOCA. Reynolds interview. For more information on Reynolds' reorganization, see discussion in the chapter on administration in part three of the document.

¹⁴William L. Lester to Jonathan Jarvis, "Backcountry Management: North Cascades National Park Service Complex," September 3, 1987, administrative files, file L48, NOCA, 1-2. See also, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, 1994, chapter 2, 1.

¹⁵William Lester to Jonathan Jarvis, "Backcountry Management," 3-5.

¹⁶Ibid., 12-13.

¹⁷Joseph W. Miller, "Touch the Wilderness Gently! A Ranger's Story," The Wild Cascades (June 1992): 13.

¹⁸Joseph Miller, "Touch the Wilderness Gently!," 13-14.

¹⁹Miller, 14. North Cascades National Park Service Complex, State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, 1994, chapter 7, 4. John J. Reynolds to David Louter, October 29, 1998, administrative files, file H1417, NOCA. Reynolds believes that the institute is "the best educational association in the NPS...focusing on young people's ability to invent and achieve." Nature and heritage education "based on parks is the best way to let a nation know what exists."

²⁰Lester and Jarvis, "Backcountry Management," 8-9. Miller, 14-15. State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, chapter 8, 4. "Superintendent's Annual Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 1, 1994 to September 30, 1995," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA, 41-42.

²¹Miller, 15-16.

²²Miller, 15-16. State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, chapter 10, 3-9.

²³John J. Reynolds to Regional Director, August 23, 1985, administrative files, file A2623, NOCA. Miller, 16. State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, chapter 10, 11.

²⁴"Superintendent's Annual Report, 1994-1994," 42.

²⁵State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, chapter 6, 4.

¹U.S. Department of the Interior, The National Parks: Index 1993 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993), 59.

²Roger J. Contor to Patrick Goldsworthy, February 27, 1972, North Cascades Conservation Council Papers, box 1, file: Correspondence, 1972-1973. See also, Roger J. Contor to District Director, October 23, 1969, administrative files, file A3817, North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA).

³Roger J. Contor to Director, October 12, 1970, administrative files, file A3817, NOCA; Harry W. Wills to Superintendent, October 6, 1972, administrative files, file A40, NOCA; Edward J. Kurtz to Norman Peterson, July 2, 1975, administrative files, file A3817, NOCA.

⁴Roger Contor to Patrick Goldsworthy, July 2, 1972; Patrick D. Goldsworthy to John Rutter, June 16, 1971, administrative files, file A3817, NOCA.

⁵See the chapter on the High Ross issue and the Park Service's response to it for more information on this topic. Edward J. Kurtz to Norman Person, July 2, 1975, administrative files, file A3817, NOCA.

⁶Briefing Statement, Ross Lake Treaty--Skagit Environmental Endowment Commission, March 7, 1988, administrative files, file A38, NOCA.

⁷"Canada May Add to North Cascades National Park," Seattle Post-Intelligencer October 5, 1989. General Management Plan, 8. James S. Rouse to Bruce Brydon, June 22, 1989, administrative files, file A38, NOCA. Park Service officials were considering a regional management proposal for the North Cascades called the Greater North Cascades Ecosystem but determined that such a title carried too much baggage, and decided to promote interagency and thus regional park management by simply referring to the area as the North Cascades. See John J. Reynolds to Ivan Miller, April 21, 1987, administrative files, file A64, NOCA.

⁸Carmi Weingrod, "Two Countries, One Wilderness," National Parks 68 (January/February 1994): 26-31.

⁹Nancy E. Stromsem to Al Swift, October 21, 1994, administrative files, file A38, NOCA.

¹⁰Press Release, National Park Service, June 14, 1995.

¹¹Briefing Statement, Ross Lake Treaty--Skagit Environmental Endowment Commission, and North Cascades National Park Service Complex, State of the Stephen Mather Wilderness, 1994, chapter 3, 7.

¹²Personal interview with Lowell White, July 19, 1996. "Superintendent's Annual Narrative Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 1990," and "Superintendent's Annual Narrative Report, North Cascades National Park Service Complex, January 1, 1994-September 30, 1995," administrative files, file A2621, NOCA.

¹³Richard L. Fowler to Scott Gudgeon, December 3, 1976; David A. Gantz to Richard L. Fowler, March 3, 1977, Record Group 79, Records of the National Park Service, Acc#84-0006, FRC#37277, file L48, National Archives--Pacific Northwest Region. By 1990, the border clearing and monument marking it were listed in the National Register of Historic Places for their cultural significance and thus suggested the need for their preservation.

¹⁴Robert C. Haraden to Regional Director, April 6, 1984, administrative files, file A40, NOCA. Keith E. Miller to Regional Director, February 29, 1984, administrative files, file A3815, NOCA.