Introduction and Acknowledgments
Nez Perce National Historical Park, established in
1965, comprises thirty-eight discontiguous sites in four states
(Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana) describing the history and
culture of the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) Indians. Several of these
properties (including sites authorized by Congress in 1992), along with
others within Yellowstone National Park, relate to the conflict between
the Nez Perces and the U.S. Army in 1877. Their collective association
with the events of 1877 prompted the National Park Service (NPS) to
prepare a study that would bring together site-specific as well as
contextual information to aid the planning, management, and
interpretation for all major land resources related to the U.S.
Army-Nez Perce War.
It is this study, "Historic Resource Study: The U.S.
Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis of 1877: Historic Sites Associated with
the Nez Perce War," completed in 1996, upon which this book is based.
That study was, as is the book that follows, necessarily, a military
history, based upon the voluminous body of documentary materials that
comprise the history from that perspective, as compared to the relative
scarcity of materials that embrace the Nez Perce viewpoint.
Nevertheless, Nee-Me-Poo perspective is vital to gaining a comprehensive
understanding of the events of 1877, and fortunately, through the
efforts of Lucullus V. McWhorter, Walter M. Camp, Edward S. Curtis, and
others who actively sought out Indian recollections during the early
years of the twentieth century, an important reservoir of first-person
participant reminiscences exists that has been incorporated into this
study to ensure perspectives from both sides. Similarly, the accounts of
participants from other tribes have been included whenever available.
Further, because past and recent histories of the Nez Perce struggle
have relied heavily upon previously published secondary works, the
present study has concentrated more exclusively on archival materials,
published government records, and participant accounts, many never
before used. With hopes for achieving greater objectivity about the war,
the study has refrained from using published secondary renditions beyond
those needed to establish background, and those articles and books that
focus on specific occurrences considered in the narrative (and required
for consideration of interpretations of the events). Two exceptions are
Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the
Northwest (1965), and Francis Haines, The Nez Perces: Tribesmen
of the Columbia Plateau (1955), both recognized standards that were
contextually important for this study. Of special value to the fieldwork
involved throughout this study was Cheryl Wilfong, Following the Nez
Perce Trail: A Guide to the Nee-Me-Poo National Historic Trail with
Eyewitness Accounts (1990). In addition, as a matter of procedure,
all quoted material has been directly footnoted; all other data, unless
critically singular in importance, have been consolidated in
multiple-citation footnotes.
A note regarding terminology: In recent years there
has been a tendency, especially on the part of the federal government,
to refer euphemistically to the events of 1877 as a "conflict" instead
of as a "war," perhaps in subliminal attempt to soften the reality of
what happened to the nontreaty Nez Perces and make it easier to accept.
Certainly for the Nez Perces, whose very existence was at stake, their
struggle against the army following the outbreak amounted to a defensive
war for survival in which they utilized their limited numbers and
resources to the maximum. Conversely, as the instrument of the federal
government determined to defeat the Nez Perces and thereby protect its
citizens, the army employed its own resources in offensively applying
the strategies and tactics that characterized its role and very purpose
for existence. Moral issues and modern judgments aside, from such
perspective the contest was in its purest sense indeed a war and is thus
designated as such in the pages that follow.
This study could not have been completed without the
help of many people and institutions. Rodd L. Wheaton, Assistant
Regional Director, Cultural Resources and Partnerships, Intermountain
Regional Office, National Park Service, Denver; and Stephanie Toothman,
Pacific West Region, Columbia Cascades Support Office, National Park
Service, Seattle, were instrumental in formulating the project, in
defining and redefining its scope, and in providing administrative
support through its completion. Elizabeth M. Janes, former Chief, Branch
of Planning, Eastern Team, Denver Service Center, approved my detail to
the (then) Rocky Mountain and Pacific Northwest regional offices for
twenty months. I must also thank Franklin D. Walker, then
Superintendent, Nez Perce National Historical Park, who provided
enthusiastic and total support throughout the research and writing
effort. Former National Park Service Chief Historian Edwin C. Bearss
promoted my involvement and offered his unique insights and valuable
advice throughout the completion of the study. Others in the respective
regional offices who extended information and assistance at various
times during this work include: Richard J. Cronenberger, Regional
Historical Architect; Adrienne B. Anderson, Regional Archeologist; David
Ruppert, Cultural Anthropologist; Anne Johnson, Archeologist; Rosemary
Sucec, Cultural Resources Specialist; Kathleen McKoy, Regional
Historian; and Charles Troje and Christine Maylath, administrative
assistants (all in the Rocky Mountain Regional Office, Denver); and
Gretchen Luxembourg, Regional Historian; Fred York, Regional
Ethnographer; James Thompson, Regional Archeologist; and Wendy Chin,
Budget Assistant (all in the then Pacific Northwest Regional Office,
Seattle). Douglas D. Scott, Archeologist, Midwest Archeological Center,
Lincoln, Nebraska, shared his counsel and expertise regarding Indian
wars sites on many occasions.
At Nez Perce National Historical Park, I must thank
Susan J. Buchel, former Manager, and Jon G. James, present
Superintendent, Big Hole National Battlefield and Bear Paw Battlefield
Unit; Mark O'Neill, former Manager, White Bird Battlefield and Upper
Clearwater Units; Arthur C. Hathaway, former Manager, Spalding Unit;
Otis Halfmoon, Idaho Unit Manager; Teresa Seloske, former Park Ranger,
White Bird Battlefield and Upper Clearwater Units; Paul Henderson,
former Manager, Oregon/Washington Unit; Robert Chenoweth, Park Curator;
Chrisanne Brown, former Librarian; Diana Miles, Park Ranger, Spalding
Unit; Linda Paisano, Museum Technician, and Tony Schetszle, former
Superintendent, Big Hole National Battlefieldall of whom variously
provided resource information and/or administrative support throughout
the study. I must also thank Charlie Moses, Chief Joseph Band of Nez
Perces of the Colville Indian Reservation, Nespelem, Washington, for
reviewing the work. At Yellowstone National Park, Lee H. Whittlesey,
Historian, and John Lounsbury, Lake District Ranger, helped in the
collection of documentary materials and reviewed parts of the
manuscript. Elsa C. Kortge, Acting Curator, assisted in finding
pertinent historic photographs in the park's vast collections. And
Aubrey L. Haines, of Tucson, Arizona, furnished information about sites
within Yellowstone and loaned me materials from his own extensive files.
Still within the National Park Service community, I also received help
and materials from Paul L. Hedren, Superintendent, Niobrara/Missouri
National Scenic Riverways, O'Neill, Nebraska; Douglas C. McChristian,
Historian, Intermountain Region, National Park Service; and Kitty
Deernose, Curator, Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Crow
Agency, Montana. At the Denver Service Center Library, Jannette S.
Wesley and Katherine S. Tudek, Librarians, helped process my many
requests for interlibrary loan materials.
Many repositories around the country responded
enthusiastically during my research trips or to my mail requests for
data. I must thank the entire staff of the Old Military Branch, National
Archives, and especially reference archivists Michael T. Meier, Tod
Butler, Michael P. Musick, and Michael E. Pilgrim. At the Smithsonian
Institution, National Anthropological Archives, Photo Archivist Paula
Richardson Fleming gave guidance and assistance. At the U.S. Army
Military History Institute, Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, I
must acknowledge the help of Richard J. Sommers, Chief
Archivist-Historian; David Keough, Assistant Archivist-Historian; Pamela
Cheney, Archives Technician; John Slonaker, Chief Reference Historian;
Louise Arnold-Friend, Reference Historian; and Dennis Vetock, Reference
Historian. I must thank the staff of the archives and library of the
U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York, particularly Alan C.
Aimone, Associate Librarian for Special Collections; Susan Lintelmann,
Manuscript Librarian, Special Collections; and Charlyn Richardson and
Sheila Biles, Library Technicians, Special Collections.
At the Archives, University of Colorado at Boulder
Libraries (Western History Collection), I received most generous help
from Cassandra M. Volpe, Archivist; Paulette D. Foss, Assistant
Archivist; and David Hays, Assistant Archivist. At the Library and
Archives of the Montana Historical Society, Helena, I benefited
repeatedly from the knowledge and assistance of former Society Librarian
Robert M. Clark. The collections at Washington State University,
Pullman, were particularly important to my work, and I thank John F.
Guido, Head, Manuscripts, Archives, and Special Collections Division;
Lawrence R. Stark, Assistant Archivist; and José Vargas for
allowing my examination and use of materials in the McWhorter and other
collections. Likewise, Terry Abraham, Director, Special Collections,
University of Idaho Library, Moscow, permitted me access to the rich
materials in his charge. Also, I must thank Wayne Silka, Manuscripts
Curator, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Peter
J. Blodgett, Curator, Western Historical Manuscripts, The Huntington
Library, San Marino, California; Laura Arksey, Curator, Cheney Cowles
Museum, Eastern Washington State Historical Society, Spokane; Dale
Johnson, former Archivist, Archives, Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library,
University of Montana, Missoula; David F. Halaas, Historian, Colorado
Historical Society, Denver; George Kush, Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Historian and Curator, Fort Whoop-Up Interpretive Center, Lethbridge,
Alberta; Michael Wagner, Braun Research Library, Southwest Museum, Los
Angeles; Heather R. Munro, Reference Assistant, Manuscripts Department,
The Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington; Vicky Jones,
Manuscripts Curator, and John Hawk, Special Collections Librarian,
Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene; R. Eli Paul, former
Research Historian, Nebraska State Historical Society, Lincoln; and
Patricia A. Michaelis, Curator, Manuscripts Division, Kansas State
Historical Society, Topeka. In addition, various staff members of the
following repositories rendered assistance throughout the course of the
study: Colorado Historical Society, Denver; Wyoming State Archives and
Historical Department, Cheyenne; South Dakota State Historical Society,
Pierre; National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland; Denver Public
Library Western History Department; The Frontier Army Museum, Fort
Leavenworth, Kansas; Library and Archives Section, Idaho State
Historical Society, Boise; Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C.; Merrill G. Burlingame Special Collections, Montana
State University Library, Bozeman; Archives and Manuscripts Department,
Special Collections Division, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young
University, Provo, Utah; Manuscripts and University Archives, University
of Washington, Seattle; Research Library, Washington State Historical
Society, Tacoma; Arvada, Colorado, Public Library; U.S. Geological
Survey Library, Lakewood, Colorado; Manuscripts Division, Boise State
University Library; Spokane Public Library; and Parmly Billings Library,
Billings, Montana.
I must also acknowledge the assistance of many
generous individuals who shared with me pertinent materials and also
their extensive knowledge of resource areas during the course of my
work. Many of them reviewed parts of the manuscript during its draft
stage. Lillian Pethtel, of Kamiah, Idaho, gave freely of her time in
accompanying me to numerous sites and in providing much valuable data.
Eileen and the late Kenneth Bennett, Kilgore, Idaho, lent their
expertise regarding the Camas Meadows encounter sites and supplied
relevant documentary items, too. For their help in delineating the Nez
Perces' possible routes down Clark's Fork, I am indebted to Stuart
Conner, Kenneth Feyhl, and Michael Bryant, of Billings, Montana. At the
Canyon Creek battlefield, Feyhl and Harold Hagen, also of Billings, and
Michael Blohm, of Laurel, Montana, contributed much of their time and
specific information about that site. LeRoy ("Andy") Anderson, of
Chinook, Montana, shared his insights into the Cow Island, Cow Creek
Canyon, and Bear's Paw encounters, while James Magera of Havre, Montana,
graciously loaned me important materials from his personal library
related to the Bear's Paw battle and accompanied me over the site of
that encounter on several occasions. John D. McDermott, of Rapid City,
South Dakota, and Don G. Rickey, of Evergreen, Colorado, respectively,
gave me access to their vast files of Indian wars documents and
contributed their counsel and knowledge of the subject matter. Brian C.
Pohanka, of Alexandria, Virginia, readily responded to my request for
data from his collection, and Kermit D. Edmonds, of Missoula, Montana,
ardently shared his knowledge of Fort Fizzle, Camas Meadows, and other
sites. Wayne T. Norman and Jeanne Norman Chiarot generously allowed me
to use the 1877 John H. Fouch photograph "Gen. Miles and Command
crossing the Yellowstone with Joseph."
Others who contributed valuably in various ways
include Paul English, Havre, Montana; Sherry L. Smith, University of
Texas at El Paso; Richard Bottomly, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Kooskia, Idaho; Dan Gard, U.S. Forest Service, Missoula, Montana; Alvin
M. Josephy, Jr., Joseph, Oregon; Paul A. Hutton, University of New
Mexico, Albuquerque; Robert M. Utley, Georgetown, Texas; Mr. and Mrs.
Gary N. Dutcher, Stites, Idaho; Colonel Ben F. ("Absaroka Ben") Irvin,
Globe, Arizona; Waldo M. Wedel, Boulder, Colorado; Leland H. Reyder,
Cottonwood, Idaho; Margot Liberty, Sheridan, Wyoming; Milton Westin,
Laurel, Montana; Carmelita Spencer, Grangeville, Idaho; Ruby Rylaarsdam,
Grangeville, Idaho; John P. Langellier, Seabee Museum, Port Hueneme,
California; John G. Lepley, Museum of the Upper Missouri, Fort Benton,
Montana; L. Clifford Soubier, Charles Town, West Virginia; Andrew
Masich, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Brad Dahlquist, Tacoma, Washington;
Rom Bushnell, Western Heritage Center, Billings, Montana; James S.
Brust, San Pedro, California; Larry Sklenar, Georgetown, South Carolina;
the late Erwin N. Thompson, Golden, Colorado; Mary L. Culpin, Denver,
Colorado; Virginia Parks, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland,
Oregon; Michael J. Koury, Fort Collins, Colorado; Janine Caywood,
Missoula, Montana; Thomas R. Buecker, Fort Robinson State Museum,
Nebraska; Joellen El Bashur, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard
University, Washington, D. C.; Richard W. Sellers, Santa Fe, New Mexico;
and Jeffrey Merritt Greene, Arvada, Colorado.
Special thanks also go to Rick Newby, Helena,
Montana, and Charles E. Rankin, Martha Kohl, Glenda Bradshaw, Kathryn
Fehlig, Molly Holz, and Randi Webb, of the Montana Historical Society
Press, and Kitty Herrin, Missoula, Montana, for their assistance in
preparing this manuscript for publication.
To all of the above individuals and institutions I
extend heartfelt thanks.
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