Jean Lafitte Historic Resource Study (Chalmette Unit)

1. Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 42, 47, 48; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, p. 68.

2. Ibid., pp. 49, 51, 53; Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 144, lxi; Smith, Autobiography, pp. 6-7; Patterson to Jackson, January 7, 1815, in Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, II, 132; Ritchie, "Louisiana Campaign," pp. 64-65.

3. Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 48, 55; Tatum, "Journal," p. 129; Cooke, Narrative of Events, pp. 224-25.

4. Ibid., p. 58; Cooke, Narrative of Events, pp. 224-25.

5. Ibid., p. 225.

6. Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, pp. 69-70.

7. Forrest, Battle of New Orleans, pp. 40-42. Slight differences appear in the orders presented in Forrest, "Journal of Operations," pp. 121-23.

8. Jebb, Practical Treatise, pp. 71, 87-88.

9. Cooke, Narrative of Events, p. 169.

10. General Court Martial, pp. 49-50; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, p. 212.

11. Surtees, Twenty-Five Years in the Rifle Brigade, pp. 370-71; Bassett, Life of Andrew Jackson, pp. 192-93; John Buchan, The History of the Royal Scots Fusiliers (1678-1918) (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1925), p. 176; "Battle of New Orleans, 8th January, 1815," Blackwood's Magazine, XXIV (September, 1828), p. 355; James, Border Captain, p. 263; Casey, "Artillery in the Battle of New Orleans," p. 29; Ritchie, "Louisiana Campaign," p. 60; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, pp. 220-21; DeGrummond, Baratarians, pp. 130-31. At the time of the battle rumors circulated among Jackson's men that Pakenham had inspired his soldiers with the prospect of unrestricted looting in New Orleans. The matter incited a major debate over the presumed British watchword on January 8, "Beauty and Booty," a charge that British officers resolutely denied. Jackson himself believed that it was true. Nonetheless, it has survived as, if nothing else, a sample of the rich folklore surrounding the Battle of New Orleans. See Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 255-56; Nolte, Fifty Years in Both Hemispheres, p. 220; Carroll to Jackson, August 4, 1833, in Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, VI, 518; Sir Charles R. Vaughn to Jackson, July 14, 1838, in ibid., V, 129-30; Jackson to George Barstow, February 19, 1814, in ibid., VI, 265. See also the discussion in Reilly, British at the Gates, p. 265.

12. From Buell, History of Andrew Jackson, I, 431-32. These figures include all troops, "actually on the field or in striking distance of it," but do not encompass troops and seamen aboard British transports in the region. Ibid. For more on the British strength question, see Roosevelt, Naval War of 1812, p. 476.

13. Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 57-58; "Sir John Maxwell Tylden Journal, 1814-1815," p. 58. See also Smith, Autobiography, pp. 7-8; Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, I, 193.

14. Historical Memoir, pp. 153-54.

15. Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 206. However; Tatum recorded in his "Journal" (p. 125) that the Forty-fourth Infantry played a role in repelling the initial British assault. This account of the opening action is drawn from Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 158-59; cl-cli; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 59-60; Nolte, Fifty Years in Both Hemispheres, p. 221; General Court Martial, p. 41; Tatum, "Journal," p. 125; Reid and Eaton, Life of Andrew Jackson, pp. 338-39; "Battle of New Orleans, 8th January, 1815," p. 355; Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 206-07; Buell, History of Andrew Jackson, pp. 9-11; Rowland, Andrew Jackson's Campaign Against the British, pp. 348-50; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, p. 82; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, p. 232.

16. Tatum, "Journal," pp. 126-27; Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 157-58; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 63-64; "Battle of New Orleans, 8th January, 1815," pp. 355-56; Walker, Jackson and New Orleans, pp. 333-35; Organ to Mordecai, January 19, 1815. Manuscript Division, Southern Historical Collection, Cooke, Narrative of Events, p. 228; Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 200-01; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, pp. 234-36; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, p. 83. At least one account denied that British troops with Rennie ever reached the main line. Cooke, Narrative of Events, p. 254.

17. See Ted Birkedal, "The Advanced Battery and the Gap" (unpublished report dated April, 1984, National Park Service, Southwest Regional Office).

18. Mullins was later court-martialed for his oversight regarding the fascines and ladders. The trial testimony disclosed that the confusion at the head of the column was not caused by the American counterattack, but by the impromptitude and negligence of Mullins. "It is my opinion," remarked one officer, "that the whole confusion of the column proceeded from the original defective formation of the 44th; the fall of Sir Edward Pakenham deprived the column of its best chance of success, and had the column moved forward according to order, the enemy lines would have been carried with little loss." General Court Martial, p. 43. For other details of the advance of Gibbs's command, and especially that part composed of the Forty-fourth, see ibid., pp. 38-41, 43, 45-49, 51-52, 58, 61, 62, 69, 73-74, 81-83, 85-86, 88-89, 96-97, 100-01, 105. On the matter of Mullins's confusion over the location of the ladders and fascines, it is entirely plausible that the terms "battery" and "redoubt" meant the same to an officer not directly concerned with the distinctions. "This mistake," wrote Cooke, "might easily have been made..., as redoubt and battery are synonymous." Narrative of Events, p. 248. For example, an officer sent to check on Mullins's task wrote that he arrived to find "the regt. just as day dawned... taking them [fascines] from the Battery [sic] ...." "Sir John Maxwell Tylden Journal," p. 59. Such imprecise use of the terms occasionally appeared in period literature about the battle. For further explanation of this critical miscommunication, see Daniel Abeel to the writer, March 10, 1984. National Park Service Southeast/Southwest Team, Denver Service Center.

19. Hill, Recollections of an Artillery Officer, II, 11. For additional information relating particularly to the formation and location of Gibbs's column during the advance, see Mullins, General Court Martial, pp. 36, 51, 93, and passim; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," p. 63; Tatum, "Journal," p. 125; and Cooke, Narrative of Events, pp. 249, 251.

20. General Court Martial, pp. 55-56.

21. General Court Martial, pp. 42-43; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 62-63. General Lambert wrote that Pakenham was hit "on the crest of the glacis." Lambert's account quoted in Latour, Historical Memoir, p. cli. Latour's map, however, indicates that Pakenham fell 250 yards from Jackson's line. Another account stated that Pakenham was killed about 100 yards from the American works. "A Contemporary Account of the Battle of New Orleans by a Soldier in the Ranks." pp. 12-15. See also, Abeel to writer, March 10, 1984, which makes a case for both Pakenham and Gibbs being wounded 50 yards from the American works.

22. "Journal," p. 125.

23. "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 60-61.

24. Numerous sources were drawn upon for the essentials of the main British attack. For additional details, see Report of Major General Lambert, January 10, 1815. BPRO, London. War Office 1, Vol. 141; Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 154-57 (Latour stated that the attack lasted one hour. Ibid., p. 157); Tatum, "Journal," pp. 125-27; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana, pp. 60-61, 63, 64; Cooke, Narrative of Events, pp. 221-22; General Court Martial, pp. 39, 41, 83; James Kempe letter in Mississippi Republican, January 18, 1815. Southern Historical Collection; Niles Weekly Register, February 11, 1815, p. 378; Pringle, Letters by Major Norman Pringle, p. 4; Gab Winter to William Willis, January 12, 1815. Department of Archives and Manuscripts, Louisiana State University; Louis de Tousard to John Clement Stocker, January 9, 1815. Manuscript Division, Historic New Orleans Collection; A Contemporary Account of the Battle of New Orleans," p. 11; "Sir John Maxwell Tylden Journal, 1814-1815"; Buchan, History of the Royal Scots Fusiliers, p. 176; Ellis, History of the First West India Regiment, p. 155; "Battle of New Orleans, 8th January, 1815," p. 356; Benson J. Lossing, "Defense of New Orleans," Harper's New Monthly Magazine, XXX (December, 1864; May, 1865), pp. 168-86; Bassett, Life of Andrew Jackson, I, 194-96; Buell, History of Andrew Jackson, II, 20-21, 25-26, 427-28, 429-30; Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 189-91, 194-99; Rowland, Andrew Jackson's Campaign Against the British, pp. 350-53, 355-56; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, pp. 83ff; Brown, Amphibious Campaign, pp. 140-59; Ritchie, "Louisiana Campaign," p. 71; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, pp. 232-37, 241; Reilly, British at the Gates, pp. 298-305. See also previously cited maps by Latour, Ellery, and Joyes, plus Alexander Dickson's sketch plan in "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," p. 62. Laclotte's "Defeat of the British Army...." engraving is also useful in showing optimum British troop movements.

25. Lambert's report in Latour, Historical Memoir, p. cli; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 64-65; "Sir John Maxwell Tylden Journal, 1814-1815," pp. 61-62. Cooke believed that ultimate success would have been assured had Lambert attacked with the reserve troops. Narrative of Events, p. 255.

26. Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 159-60.

27. Ibid.; Jackson to Monroe, January 13, 1815, in ibid., pp. liv-lvi

28. British records accounted for one 10-inch howitzer, two 4-pounder cannon, three 24-pounders, three 12-pounders, six 9-pounders, and one 12-pounder carronade captured by Thornton's command. "Return of the Ordnance taken from the Enemy by a Detachment of the Army acting on the Right Bank of the Mississippi under the Command of Colonel Thornton." BPRO, London. War Office 1, Vol. 141.

29. For further details of the west bank action, including the controversial performance of the Kentuckians, see Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 164-66, 168-76, 231-32, cxxxii, clii, clvi-clix, clxii-clxiii, xliv-xlvi, lxi-lxiv; Tatum, "Journal," pp. 127-28; Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 65-67; James, Full and Correct Account, p. 549; Brigadier General Robert McCansland to Jackson, January 28, 1815. Ferdinand J. Dreer Autograph Collection. Manuscript Division, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; Morgan to Jackson, January 8, 1815. Jackson Papers. Manuscript Division, Chicago Historical Society; Joyes, "Defense of Kentucky Troops." Joyes Papers. Filson Club Collection; Thomas Joyes, "Account of Service in War of 1812," pp. 6-7, in ibid.; "Report of Colonel Thornton," January 8, 1815. BPRO, London. War Office 1, Vol. 141; Gleig, Campaigns of the British Army, pp. 180-81; Nolte, Fifty Years in Both Hemispheres, p. 223; Jackson, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, II, 135; Morgan to Jackson, January 8, 1815, in ibid.; Orleans Gazette and Commercial Advertiser, May 31, 1817, quoting Morgan, letter to editors of the Lexington Reporter (Kentucky); "An Account of the Battle by New Orleans by John Nixon, Adjutant of the First Regiment of La. Militia" (typescript copy in the Louisiana State Museum Library); Bassett, Life of Andrew Jackson, I, 198-201; Roosevelt Naval War of 1812, pp. 478-79, 483-85; Buell, History of Andrew Jackson, II, 36-39; Meuse, Weapons of the Battle of New Orleans, pp. 32-33; Ritchie, "Louisiana Campaign," pp. 68-69; James, Border Captain, pp. 267-68; DeGrummond, Baratarians, p. 138; Reilly, British at the Gates, p. 288; Brown, Amphibious Campaign, pp. 150-51; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, pp. 77, 81, 84, 86; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, pp. 238, 242-43, 246.

30. Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 176-78, lii-liv; Dickson, Journal of Operations in Louisiana," pp. 69-70, 71; "Sir John Maxwell Tylden Journal, 1814-1815," pp. 62, 64; Cooke, Narrative of Events, pp. 238, 240-41; Nolte, Fifty Years in Both Hemispheres, p. 222; "Battle of New Orleans, 8th January, 1815," p. 357. James, Border Captain, p. 267; Rowland, Andrew Jackson's Campaign Against the British, pp. 364-65; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, p. 84; Brooks, Siege of New Orleans, pp. 247, 249-50. For the exchange of notes between Jackson and Lambert, see Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, II, 133-34, 138-39. Whereas most sources cited here indicate that Lambert identified himself to Jackson on January 8 as commander-in-chief of the British forces, Jackson's own correspondence indicates that final determination of Lambert's status occurred on the 11th. Ibid., p. 139.

31. Tatum, "Journal," pp. 127, 130; Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 163-64.

32. "Contemporary Account of the Battle of New Orleans," pp. 14-15. See also, Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 208-09.

33. Hayne to Jackson, January 13, 1815, in Latour, Historical Memoir, p. lvi.

34. Buell, History of Andrew Jackson, pp. 40-41.

35. Rowland, Andrew Jackson's Campaign Against the British, pp. 365-66; Bassett, Life of Andrew Jackson, p. 196-97; DeGrummond, Baratarians, p. 139. On the question of British casualties, never satisfactorily resolved, see also Tatum, "Journal," p. 130; Buchan, History of the Royal Scots Fusiliers, p. 177; Roosevelt, Naval War of 1812, p. 483, 485-86; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, p. 103.

36. Bassett, Life of Andrew Jackson, p. 197.

37. Latour, Historical Memoir, p. 175. While the commonly accepted folklore of the battle credits the huge British casualties to the performance of Carroll's, Coffee's, and Adair's militia, analytical evaluation of the evidence strongly suggests that it was Jackson's artillery rather than the backwoodsmen who won the day. This includes knowledge of high casualties in British units known to have been beyond musket range during the fighting. Most accounts stated that Coffee's men actually fired little during the battle and Latour noted that the units under Plauche, Daquin, Lacoste, plus most of the Forty-fourth Infantry withheld fire. Furthermore, although British medical personnel mentioned few instances of casualties caused by artillery fire, they had no knowledge that the Americans were firing grape and canister whose wounds resembled those from musket balls and buckshot. See Reilly, British at the Gates, p. 307; Casey, "Artillery at the Battle of New Orleans," p. 36.

38. Latour, Historical Memoir, p. 175; Rowland, Andrew Jackson's Campaign Against the British, pp. 365-66; DeGrummond, Baratarians, p. 139. Tatum wrote that Jackson lost 11 men killed and 23 wounded on the left bank and 2 killed, 16 wounded, and 19 missing on the right bank. "Journal," p. 130. See also Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. lix-lx; Jackson's papers account for 13 killed, 39 wounded, and 19 missing in action, these figures including losses on both sides of the river. Jackson, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, p. 143.

39. Stuart O. Landry, Side Lights on the Battle of New Orleans (New Orleans: Pelican Publishing Company, 1965), p. 50. See Claiborne to Kentucky Governor Shelby, January 9, 1815. Miscellaneous Manuscripts. Manuscript Division, New York Historical Society.

40. Tatum, "Journal," pp. 130-32; Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 233; Reid and Eaton, Life of Andrew Jackson, pp. 354, 356-57. The consensus among historians is that the British buried most of their fatalities. At one point, however, Jackson wrote Lambert, January 8, that "the dead on the field beyond the line [ditch],... you can inter. Those within that line shall be intered [sic] by my troops." Andrew Jackson Papers. Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress. Presidential Papers Microfilm, Series 3, Vols. F-K, Reel 62.

41. Gab Winter to William Willis, January 12, 1815. Department of Archives and Manuscripts, Louisiana State University.

42. Diary of Samuel Mordecai, March-June, 1815.

43. Gleig, Campaigns of the British Army, p. 182.

44. Smith, Autobiography, p. 12. Yet another likely location for British burials was in the area of the headquarters at Villeré's mansion. Here many of the wounded British died and, reportedly, were interred. Some confirmation of this place as a burial site appeared in The Daily Picayune (New Orleans), January 18, 1891. According to the paper, a drainage ditch excavated in the immediate vicinity a few years previous had disclosed numerous artifacts. "Belts and swords were brought up by the spades, and more relics are constantly being found. A year ago a sword came back from the grave. Bullets, around which the bodies have turned to dust, are shaken from the sides of the [ditch] stream...."

45. Ibid.

46. Niles' Weekly Register, July 15, 1815, p. 348.

47. Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, II, 233.

48. Brooks stated that the dead soldiers were placed in ditches on Bienvenue's property and that the officers' remains were taken to the rear and buried at Villeré's plantation. General Coffee's men had already buried some British in the vicinity of their line position before word of the general plan reached them. Those interred were not exhumed. The bodies of Pakenham, Gibbs, and Rennie, were disembowled and interred in barrels of rum for conveyance to England. Siege of New Orleans, pp. 253-55; DeGrummond,, Baratarians, p. 139. In 1933 archeological excavations were connected along what was believed to be the drainage ditch in search of the British burial ground. More excavations took place in the area between the British and American positions, but no evidence of the interments was found. Wilson, "Search for Jackson's Mud Rampart," p. 10.

49. Dudly Avery to Mary Ann, January 16, 1815. Avery Family Papers, Folder #1, 1796-1815. Manuscript Division, Southern Historical Collection.

50. Latour, Historical Memoir, pp. 188-91; lxix-lxxi; Tatum, "Journal," pp. 132-33; Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812, pp. 92-93. Rumors circulated among the British army that Fort St. Philip was destroyed by an explosion and that the British navy would soon arrive up the river. Dickson, "Journal of Operations in Louisiana," p. 74; "Sir John Maxwell Tylden Journal, 1814-1815," p. 76. The battery erected behind Jackson's right contained thirty-one men, according to Lieutenant Colonel MacRea, "List of officers and men serving at the Batteries." Ellery indicated that this battery faced its embrasures landward rather than toward the river. "Plan Showing the disposition of the American Troops ...." The battery is also depicted on the Joyes map.