CRATERS OF THE MOON Historic Context Statements

¹ Bruce J. Noble, Jr., Cultural Resource Management in Mammoth Cave National Park: A National Park Service--Kentucky Heritage Council Cooperative Project (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1991).

¹ Robert B. Butler, "Prehistory of the Snake and Salmon River Area," in Handbook of North American Indians vol. 11, Great Basin ed. Warren L. D'Azevedo (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1986), 127-129.

² Robert B. Butler, "Prehistory of the Snake and Salmon River Area," 129-131. Peter J. Mehringer, Jr., "Prehistoric Environments," in Handbook of North American Indians vol. 11, Great Basin, 49-50.

³ Butler, 131-133.

⁴ Robert F. Murphy and Yolanda Murphy, "Northern Shoshone and Bannock," in Handbook of North American Indians. vol. 11, Great Basin, 284-285.

⁵ Ibid.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ Deward E. Walker Jr., Indians of Idaho (Moscow: University of Idaho Press, 1978), 87, 89-90.

⁸ Deward E. Walker, Jr., Indians of Idaho, 90.

⁹ Walker, 25, 87.

¹⁰ Robert F. Murphy and Yolanda Murphy, "Northern Shoshone and Bannock," 288-289,286, and Brigham D. Madsen, The Northern Shoshoni (Caldwell: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1980), 23.

¹¹ Brigham D. Madsen, The Northern Shoshoni, 23.

¹² Murphy and Murphy, "Northern Shoshone and Bannock," 300-302.

¹³ Murphy and Murphy, 302, and Madsen, The Northern Shoshoni, 23-25.

¹⁴ Madsen, 27.

¹⁵ David L. Crowder, "Nineteenth-Century Indian-White Conflict in Southern Idaho," Idaho Yesterdays 23 (Summer 1979): 14, and Madsen, The Northern Shoshoni 30-31.

¹⁶ David L. Crowder, "Nineteenth-Century Indian-White Conflict in Southern Idaho," 14; Madsen, The Northern Shoshoni, 34-36; Brigham D. Madsen, The Shoshoni Frontier and the Bear River Massacre (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1985), 177-200.

¹⁷ Madsen, The Northern Shoshoni, 75-88.

¹⁸ Murphy and Murphy, 302-303.

¹⁹ Paul G. Sneed, "An Archaeological Reconnaissance of Craters of the Moon National Monument," Tebiwa: Journal of the Idaho State University Museum 10 (1), 1967: 45-46; James McLaughlin and Dorothy Sammons, "A Systematic Survey for Cultural Resources at Craters of the Moon National Monument," (Reports of Investigation No. 92-4, Northern Intermountain Quaternary Institute, Idaho Museum of Natural History, Idaho State University, 1992): 19.

²⁰ Paul G. Sneed, "An Archaeological Reconnaissance of Craters of the Moon National Monument," 45-47; Dorothy Sammons, "Little Prairie Burn Cultural Resources Survey, Craters of the Moon National Monument," (Reports of Investigation, No. 93-3, Department of Anthropology, Idaho State University, 1993): 4.

²¹ Ibid.

²² Robert W. Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon' in Idaho: An Account of the First Expeditions Through the Remarkable Volcanic Lava Beds of Southern Idaho," National Geographic 45 (March 1924): 304-308, 318, 328.

²³ Harold T. Steams, A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho (Caldwell: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology, 1928), 41, and Harold T. Stearns, "Field Notes--1926 Survey of Craters of the Moon," 237-239, Craters of the Moon National Monument Museum Collection.

²⁴ Stearns, A Guide to the Craters of the Moon, 41, 43.

²⁵ Ella E. Clark, Indian Legends from the Northern Rockies (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), 193-194.

²⁶ Harold T. Stearns, A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument. Idaho, 41.

²⁷ "Complete Story of Lost Valley; Found after 65 years' Study and Hunting," Idaho Republican, January 24, 1927.

²⁸ Ibid.

²⁹ "Crater Expedition Announces Finds," untitled, undated clipping, ca. August 1926, box 4, file 1, Robert W. Limbert Collection, Boise State University Library; "New Attraction Craters Told By Limbert, Arco Advertiser, November 12, 1926.

³⁰ Interview with Roger J. Contor, September 6, 1990; see also David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 52 and n.62.

³¹ At the time this document was written, there was a multiple-year cultural resource survey underway of the monument which would provide the foundation for such an evaluation. See, for example, the James McLaughlin and Dorothy Sammons, "A Systematic Survey for Cultural Resources at Craters of the Moon National Monument," (Reports of Investigation No. 92-4, Northern Quaternary Institute, Idaho Museum of Natural History, Idaho State University, 1992).

³² National Park Service, National Register Bulletin 38: Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992), 1.

¹ John S. Galbraith, The Hudson's Bay Company as an Imperial Factor, 1821-1869 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 78-110; Thelma B. De Jong, "Explorations and Fur Trade in Idaho, 1805-1846," MA. Thesis, Brigham Young University, 1957. This, of course, is not to say that the country was not "known" to Native Americans.

² Merrill D. Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho (Caldwell: Caxton Printers, 1942), 63; Carlos A. Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows: A History of Idaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 25-33.

³ William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and Scientist in the Winning of the American West (1966; reprint, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1978), 19, 24; James P. Ronda, Astoria and Empire (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 176-191.

⁴ William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire, 31-34. Hunt is quoted in Merrill D. Beal A History of Southeastern Idaho, 319.

⁵ De Jong, 3-5; Carlos Schwantes, The Pacific Northwest: An Interpretive History (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), 59; John S. Galbraith, The Hudson's Bay Company as an Imperial Factor, 82-83.

⁶ De Jong, 4-5; Galbraith, The Hudson's Bay Company, 88-89, 102.

⁷ De Jong, 5; Galbraith, 96.

⁸ Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire, 150-151; see also, Carlos Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows,
44-45.

⁹ Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire, 160-166; Carlos Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows, 32-34; "Fort Hall, 1834-1856," Idaho Yesterdays 12 (Summer 1968): 28-29; "Fort Boise, From Imperial Outpost to Historic Site," Idaho Yesterdays 6 (Spring 1962): 15-16, 33-36.

¹⁰ De Jong, "Explorations and Fur Trade in Idaho, 1805-1846," 5-7; Galbraith, 101-102; "Fort Boise,"
37; "Fort Hall," 31.

¹¹ De Jong, 192-194.

¹² Francis Haines, Jr., "The Lost River of John Day," Idaho Yesterdays 2 (Winter 1958-59): 6-10; "Donald Mackenzie's 1819-1820 Campsite," Reference Series 902 (Boise: Idaho State Historical Society, y 1988). Peter Skene Ogden, Peter Skene Ogden's Snake Country Journals, 1824-1826 (London: Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1950), 87, n.1. Variations of the spelling of Thyery Goddin exist. This spelling seems to be the most common in the original journals of fur trappers. There is also discrepancy about the exact date of discovery of the Big Lost River. Some accounts place it at 1823; see, for example, Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History (Arco: Arco Advertiser, 1926). But this date does not seem accurate given the above references. The river earned its contemporary name about ten years later, it seems, when trappers were unable to locate the river, since it had sunk into the porous lava, hence "Big Lost River." It was at this time, 1830, that the trapper, Henry Goddin, son of Thyery, it seems, was killed by Indians looking for the river. See the above citation from Ogden's journal and Peter Skene Ogden's Snake Country Journals. 1827-1829, ed. Glyndwr Williams (London: Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1971), 21, n.3.

¹³ Alexander Ross, The Fur Hunters of the Far West, ed. Kenneth A. Spaulding (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956), 249.

¹⁴ Alexander Ross, The Fur Hunters of the Far West, 250-251.

¹⁵ Ross, 251, 284-286.

¹⁶ Peter Skene Ogden, Peter Skene Ogden's Snake Country Journals, 1824-1826 (London: Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1950), 30-33, quotation from 33.

¹⁷ Dale L. Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1953), 138-139, 186-187, quotation from 138. Morgan's account draws on Ross's and Ogden's journals to recreate Smith's activities in the region. Consequently, we know that Smith followed the brigade route across the desert between the Snake and Big Lost rivers and over the mountain route to the Big Wood River, for example, but not what he thought about this country.

¹⁸ Peter Skene Ogden, Peter Skene Ogden's Snake Country Journals, 1827-1829, 21-27.

¹⁹ John Work, The Snake Country Expedition of 1830-1831: The Field Journal of John Work, ed. Francis P. Haines, Jr. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971), 32-36, 54-58.

²⁰ Stevens's story is retold in Warren Angus Ferris, Life in the Rocky Mountains: A Diary of Wanderings on the Sources of the Rivers Missouri, Columbia, and Colorado. 1830-1835, new rev. ed. (Denver: Old West Publishing Company, 1983), 53-54.

²¹ Warren A. Ferris, Life in the Rocky Mountains, 54-56.

²² Ferris, 56; "Jean Baptiste Charbonneau," Idaho Yesterdays 5 (Fall 1961): 7-8.

²³ Nathaniel J. Wyeth, The Correspondence of Captain Nathaniel J. Wyeth, 1831-1836 (1899; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1973), 199-205, 227-229.

²⁴ John K. Townsend, Across the Rockies to the Columbia (1839; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 122-124.

²⁵ Washington Irving, The Adventures of Captain Bonneville. U.S.A. (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898), 197-198.

²⁶ Washington Irving, The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A. 199.

¹ William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (1966; reprint, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1978), 148-150, 156.

² Washington Irving, The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A. (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898), 199.

³ John K. Townsend, Across the Rockies to the Columbia (1839; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 92.

⁴ William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West, 231-232; Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 122.

⁵ William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire, 149-150, 245-246; Donald Jackson and Mary Lee Spense, eds., The Expeditions of John C. Fremont, vol. 1, Travels from 1838-1844 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 517-538.

⁶ Goetzmann, 248-249.

⁷ Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire 281, 286; see also, Carl Schlicke, "Frederick West Lander: Western Road-Builder," Columbia: The Magazine of Pacific Northwest History 8 (Spring 1994): 29-34.

⁸ Goetzmann, 445. Quoted in Thurman Wilkins, Clarence King: A Biography, rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 127.

⁹ Thurman Wilkins, Clarence King: A Biography, 217.

¹⁰ Goetzmann, 487, 502-514.

¹¹ Sir Archibald Geikie, Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad (New York, 1882), 214, 237-238.

¹² Geikie, Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad, 237-238, 242-245.

¹³ C. Hart Merriam, "Journal of a Trip in Idaho 1890, August 15-October 24," box 4, file 1890, "Idaho," C. Hart Merriam Papers, Library of Congress, 6-83, quotations from 37 and 83, ; see also box 59, subject and clippings files pertaining to Idaho; and C. Hart Merriam, Results of a Biological Reconnaissance of South-central Idaho (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1891).

¹⁴ Israel C. Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 13; Warren P. Lombard and Martin L. D'Odoge, "Israel Cook Russell," Science 24 (October 5, 1906): 426-431; for more information on Russell's report and activities, see Israel C. Russell to C. Willard Hayes, March 22, 1902, and C. Willard Hayes to C.D. Walcott, May 14, 1902, Record Group 57, Records of the Geological Survey, entry 81, box 36, file 821, National Archives.

¹⁵ Quotation from Russell to Hayes, March 22, 1902; Israel C. Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Southern Idaho, 13.

¹⁶ Russell, 15-16.

¹⁷ Ibid., 18-19.

¹⁸ Ibid., 22-23.

¹⁹ Ibid., 24.

²⁰ Ibid., 19-20.

²¹ Ibid., 20.

²² Ibid.

²³ Russell, 20-21.

²⁴ Ibid., 36.

²⁵ Ibid., 37-38.

²⁶ Ibid., 61-108. Quotation from 72.

²⁷ Israel C. Russell, Notes on the Geology of Southwestern Idaho and Southeastern Oregon (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903).

²⁸ Mary C. Rabbitt, Minerals. Lands, and Geology for the Common Defense and General Welfare: A History of Public Lands. Federal Science and Mapping Policy, and Development of Mineral Resources in the United States, vol. 3, 1904-1939 (Washington, D.C.: United States Geological Survey, 1986), 225, 289, 294.

²⁹ Harold T. Stearns, Memoirs of a Geologist: From Poverty Peak to Piggery Gulch (Honolulu: Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, 1983).

³⁰ "Complete Story of the Lost Valley; Found after 65 years' Study and Hunting," Idaho Republican, January 24, 1927.

³¹ "Complete Story of Lost Valley"; Harold T. Steams, A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument. Idaho, Bulletin 13 (Boise: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology, 1928), 41.

³² "Pocatello Man Visited Craters in Early Days," no reference, Craters of the Moon Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society (ISHS).

³³ Israel Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Southern Idaho, 37-38, 72, quotation from 72.

³⁴ Russell, 72.

³⁵ Ibid., 73.

³⁶ Ibid., 80-81. For more discussion on Russell's use of a ladder, see Harold T. Stearns, "Geology of Craters of the Moon," unpublished manuscript, ca. 1930, Technical File C29a, Craters of the Moon National Monument, 58.

³⁷ Russell, 82-106.

³⁸ Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, 108; Israel C. Russell, Notes on the Geology of Southwestern Idaho and Southeastern Oregon (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903), 38.

³⁹ "Complete Story of Lost Valley," Idaho Republican, January 24, 1927.

⁴⁰ "The Devil's Playground," Arco Advertiser, June 7, 1912; "The Devil's Playground Revisited," Arco Advertiser, June 21, 1912.

⁴¹ "Explore Lava Deserts," Arco Advertiser, May 2, 1913; "Ancient Craters," Arco Advertiser June 20, 1913.

⁴² "Discover Great Cave Near Arco," Arco Advertiser, June 2, 1916; Harold T. Stearns, "Field Notes-- 1926 Survey of Craters of the Moon," 237-239, Craters of the Moon National Monument Museum Collection; Harold T. Stearns, "Geology of Craters of the Moon," 5, 78.

⁴³ Arco Advertiser October 3, 1924; "Death Removes S.A. Paisley, First Park Custodian," Arco Advertiser, August 19, 1932; Addison T. Smith to Horace M. Albright, September 23, 1924, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79 (hereafter RG 79), entry 7, Central Classified Files (hereafter CCF), Craters of the Moon National Monument (hereafter CRMO), box 580, file 0.35, part 1, National Archives (hereafter NA).

⁴⁴ Nicholas Casner, "'Two-Gun Limbert': Man from the Sawtooths," Idaho Yesterdays 32 (Spring 1988): 2-11; Robert W. Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon': An Account of the First Expeditions Through the Remarkable Volcanic Lava Beds of Southern Idaho," National Geographic Magazine 45 (March 1924): 303-328.

⁴⁵ Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'" 303; for an earlier version of this story, see Robert W. Limbert, "A Trip to the Moon Right Here in Idaho," Idaho Sunday Statesman, April 10, 1921.

⁴⁶ Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'" 304-309, 311-312, 315. Wes Watson is not readily identifiable.

⁴⁷ Limbert, 311, 318, 322, 326-328.

⁴⁸ Robert W. Limbert, "Our Next National Park," 2,7, typescript, box 1, file 18, Robert W. Limbert Papers, Boise State University.

⁴⁹ Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'" 327; and "Our Next National Park," 1.

⁵⁰ "Party Coming to Explore Craters Arrive June 8th," Arco Advertiser, Special Edition, June 6, 1921; quotation from "Expedition Ready to Explore Moon Valley," Arco Advertiser, June 10, 1921; "'Moon Valley' Gets Many Specimens," Idaho Daily Statesman clipping, n.d., 1921; "'Moon Valley' Trampers Back Friday Morning," Idaho Daily Statesman, June 25, 1921; Robert W. Limbert, "Close-up of Moon Valley's Monarch," Arco Advertiser, August 26, 1921; Harry Nims, "Exploring the Valley of the Moon," The North Side News, July 21, 1921.

⁵¹ Robert W. Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon' in Idaho," Literary Digest 81 (April 12, 1924): 41-44; Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'" National Geographic; Casner, "'Two-Gun Limbert,'" 7. For a sense of the criticism Limbert faced, see Gilbert Grosvenor to Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, March 8, 1924, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers, box 2, file 4, Boise State University.

⁵² "Limbert to Talk about Craters," Arco Advertiser. March 17, 1922; Harold T. Stearns, Memorandum Regarding Proposed Name of Proposed "Craters of the Moon National Monument, Butte County, Idaho," in Director of U.S. Geological Survey to A.B. Cammerer, Acting Director, National Park Service, February 2, 1924, RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, box 580, file 035, part 1, NA. In a memorandum to Director Stephen T. Mather, A.B. Cammerer on February 7, 1924, wrote that he favored the name "Craters of the Moon" because it was descriptive and had "good publicity value." See above citation.

⁵³ Jo G. Martin to EA. Davidson, June 27, 1927, RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, box 582, file 207, NA.

⁵⁴ "Scientific Party Will Explore Cave Regions," Shoshone Journal, May 14, 1926; "Club Will Send Expedition into Craters of Moon," untitled clipping, ca. May 1926, Robert W. Limbert Papers, box 4, file 1.

⁵⁵ "Crater Expedition Announces Finds," untitled, undated clipping, ca. August 1926, box 4, file 1, Robert W. Limbert Papers; "New Attractions Told by Limbert," Arco Advertiser, November 12, 1926. What Limbert and his party claimed to have found remains open to speculation. Does such a place exist in the lava fields of Craters of the Moon? Did Limbert really find it? Is it myth or reality? We may never know for sure. We do know that there was an interest in a place in the volcanic country known as the Lost Valley. And this much seems for certain: Limbert did find something. Most likely, according to contemporary investigations, he was describing the area near Blacktail Butte, where there are small volcanic vents, isolated water holes, pockets of limber pines or jumpers, rock rings and accompanying Indian artifacts. These more recent investigations suggest that Limbert did not find a place where there is a large valley, a running stream, expanse of forest, and a large number of game animals. These descriptions were more the stuff of legend than fact, exaggerations meant to stimulate interest in Craters of the Moon.

⁵⁶ Harold T. Stearns, Memoirs of a Geologist, 3, 40; Harold T. Stearns, "Craters of the Moon National Monument," The Geographical Review 14 (July 1924): 362-363, 366.

⁵⁷ Arno B. Cammerer to Philip S. Smith, January 8, 1924, RG 79, CCF, CRMO, box 580, file 0.35, part 1, NA.

⁵⁸ Harold T. Stearns, "The Proposed Craters of the Moon National Monument, Butte County, Idaho," January 15, 1924, RG 79, entry 7, box 580, file 0.35, part 1, NA, 18-19.

⁵⁹ O.E. Meinzer to Director, National Park Service, January 17, 1924, RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO,box 580, file 035, part 1, NA.

⁶⁰ Fred E. Wright to Director, National Park Service, January 18, 1924, RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, box 580, file 0.35, part 1, NA.

⁶¹ Stearns, "Craters of the Moon National Monument," 367, for quotation; Wright to Director, January 18, 1924, RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, box 580, file 0.35, part 1, NA; Harold T. Stearns A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument. Idaho, 35-39.

⁶² David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 18-32.

⁶³ Stearns, "The Proposed Craters of the Moon National Monument, Butte County, Idaho," 3, 18.

⁶⁴ Max J. Gleissner, "A Report on the Craters of the Moon National Monument, Butte County, Idaho," February 25, 1926, RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, box 582, file 207, NA, 3, 18; see Plate IA for photo and caption of triangulation station.

⁶⁵ Max J. Gleissner, "Craters of the Moon National Monument," (map), RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, box 582, file 0.32, NA.

⁶⁶ Harold T. Stearns, "Proposed Boundary Changes for the Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho," RG 79, entry 7, CCF, CRMO, file 0.35, part 1, NA, 1-2.

⁶⁷ Harold T. Stearns, "Field Notes--1926 Survey of Craters of the Moon," 183-191.

⁶⁸ Stearns, 195-196.

⁶⁹ Ibid., 197-199.

⁷⁰ Ibid., 201, 216-217.

⁷¹ Ibid., 207-208.

⁷² Ibid., 219, 223.

⁷³ Ibid., 183-191.

⁷⁴ Stearns, "Field Notes," 235-238. Stearns discussed aging methods elsewhere; see, Stearns, "Geology of Craters of the Moon," 19-22; Stearns, A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument. Idaho 33-39.

⁷⁵ Stearns, "Proposed Boundary Changes for the Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho, 1-3, quotation from 2.

⁷⁶ Stearns, "Geology of Craters of the Moon," 2, 31-36; Stearns, A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho. 25.

⁷⁷ CA. Bottolfsen to Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, May 14, 1923, box 2, file 4; E.F. Rhodenbaugh to Francis A. Thomson, May 9, 1927, box 2, file 5; E.F. Rhodenbaugh to J. Harlan Bretz, April 6, 1929. box 2, file 5; see also "Field Trip Logs," Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers.

⁷⁸ "New Scenic Spot Awaits Tourists," Boise Capital News, October 30, 1935.

⁷⁹ See correspondence from National Park Service officials to G.F. Shepherd in RG 79, entry 7, box 2125, National Monuments file, part 2, NA. Shepherd's published briefs are: G. Frederick Shepherd, "Volcanic Phenomena in the Craters of the Moon, Idaho, Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 29 (December 1936): 190-191; "Rifting and Volcanic Activity in the Craters of the Moon, Idaho, [abstract], Geological Society of America, Proceedings 48 (June 1936): 105-106.

⁸⁰ Allen M. Thompson, "Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Township 2 North, Range 24 East," vol. 52, Bureau of Land Management, Boise, Idaho; Guy H Richardson, "Field Notes of the Survey of Subdivision of Part of Township 2 North, Range 24 East," vol. 305, Bureau of Land Management, Boise, Idaho.

⁸¹ H.G. Bardsley and Frank D. Maxwell, "Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision of T. 1 N., T. 2 N., and T 1 S., R. 25 E.; T. 1 N., R. 24 B.," vol 351, Bureau of Land Management, Boise, Idaho.

⁸² For a more detailed and comprehensive look at the research conducted at the monument, see Jennifer A. Blakesley and R. Gerald Wright, A Review of Scientific Research at Craters of the Moon National Monument (Moscow: University of Idaho, College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Range Sciences, 1988), 3-11.

⁸³ Mel A. Kuntz, et al., "The Great Rift and the Evolution of the Craters of the Moon Lava Field, Idaho," in Bill Bonnichsen and R.M. Breckenridge, eds., Cenozoic Geology of Idaho (Moscow: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 26, 1982), 423-437, quotation from 425.

¹ Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 183.

² Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own" 183-192. See also, John D. Unruh, Jr., The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West. 1840-1860 (1979; reprint, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).

³ John D. Unruh, Jr., The Plains Across; Carlos A. Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows: A History of Idaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 39-43.

⁴ Unruh, Jr., The Plains Across. 85; Daniel J. Hutchison and Larry R. Jones, eds., Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho, Adventures in the Past--Idaho Cultural Resource Series, Number 1 (Boise: Bureau of Land" Management and Idaho State Historical Society, 1993), 1-3; Merrill J. Mattes, Platte River Road Narratives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 4-5.

⁵ Irving R. Merrill, "Tim Goodale and His Cutoff: A Major Trail Segment During and After the Fourth Migration Wave," Overland Journal 8 (1990): 9; Daniel J. Hutchison and Larry R. Jones, eds., Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho, 4.

⁶ "Goodale's Cutoff," Reference Series 51 (Boise: Idaho State Historical Society, revised 1988); Irving R. Merrill, "Tim Goodale and His Cutoff," 12-14.

⁷ "Goodale's Cutoff," Reference Series 51; Nellie Slater, "Travels on the Plains in 1862," typescript, Idaho State Historical Society, Boise, 13. One trail scholar notes that a small emigrant company used the Camas Prairie Route (or eastern section) in 1852, and that in 1854 two small traveling companies made the same crossing. See Irving R. Merrill, ed., Bound for Idaho: The 1864 Trail Journal of Julius Merrill (Moscow: University of Idaho Press, 1988), 20.

⁸ Fred W. Dykes, Jeffrey's Cutoff: Idaho's Forgotten Oregon Trail Route (Pocatello: Pocatello Copy Cat, 1989), 2, 4-5; Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows, 42.

⁹ Harvey H. Jones, "Journal of Harvey H. Jones Written by him While Crossing the Country from Whig, Grant County, Wisconsin to Seattle, Washington State," Idaho State Historical Society, Boise. Quotation from 3.

¹⁰ Winfield Scott Ebey, "A Journal of [a] Trip over the Plains," vol. 1, April to August, 1854, Winfield Scott Ebey Papers, University of Washington, Seattle, 230-231. Quotations from Harvey H. Jones, "Journal of Harvey H. Jones," 3-4.

¹¹ Winfield Scott Ebey, "A Journal of [a] Trip over the Plains," 234-237.

¹² "Goodale's Cutoff," Reference Series 51; Jones and Hutchison, eds., Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho, 130. Note that these documents and the National Register nomination for Goodale's Cutoff reference an 1859 G.K Warren map. This may be a later edition than the one noted in William H. Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (1966; reprint, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1978), 314.

¹³ Irving Merrill, "Tim Goodale and His Cutoff," 11; "Goodale's Cutoff," Reference Series 51; Jones and Hutchison, eds., Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho, 130.

¹⁴ Merrill, 11; Oliver B. Slater, "Reminiscences of O.B. Slater," Idaho State Historical Society, 4.

¹⁵ Irving R. Merrill, ed., Bound for Idaho, 15.

¹⁶ Merrill, 11, makes the judgement that this was the largest party based on work by Merrill J. Mattes, Platte River Road Narratives. 33, detailing the average size of an emigrant company and the number that traveled together at any one time; Nellie Slater, "Travels on the Plains in 1862," 13; Jones and Hutchison, 130.

¹⁷ Nellie Slater, 3-4. Information on the grave site of the young girl is sketchy at best. In an oral interview by Fred W. Dykes with Les Broadie, June 8, 1991, Broadie states that the girl's last name was Slater. Her first name possibly was Nellie. Broadie, who owns the old Martin ranch and townsite, was told this story by Matie D. Martin. The name, however, does not seem to be correct, since Nellie Slater lived to write a diary of her account. Nellie Slater's father died on the trip, but she does not mention any other family members dying. Death was common to travel, whether the identification of the person is known.

¹⁸ Oscar B. Slater, "Reminiscences of O.B. Slater," 5.

¹⁹ Merrill, ed., Bound for Idaho 12; see also, Merrill, "Tim Goodale and His Cutoff," 9. The figures, as suggested in Merrill's work, seem to be based on the number of emigrants on the overland trail.

²⁰ Nellie Slater, "Travels on the Plains in 1862," 4.

²¹ Mrs. WA. Loughary, "A Brief Journal of The Travels and Incidents of an Emigrant Ox Train across the Plains...," Woolverton Family Manuscript, Idaho State Historical Society, 21; Charles Nelson Teeter, "Four Years of My Life, or, My Adventures in the Far West," typescript, Charles Nelson Teeter Papers, Idaho State Historical Society, 106.

²² Mrs. WA. Loughary, "A Brief Journal of the Travels and Incidents of an Emigrant Ox Train across the Plains," 21.

²³ Charles Teeter, "Four Years of My Life," 107; Irving R. Merrill, Bound for Idaho, 100.

²⁴ Loughary, 20.

²⁵ Merrill, 97.

²⁶ Nellie Slater, 3-4.

²⁷ Slater, 4.

²⁸ Merrill, 99.

²⁹ Ibid., 99-100.

³⁰ Loughary, 21.

³¹ Merrill, ed., Bound for Idaho, 101.

³² William E. Davis, "George Forman: The Great Pedestrian," Idaho Yesterdays 10 (Spring 1966): 4-5.

³³ Davis, "George Forman," 5; Fred W. Dykes, Jeffrey's Cutoff, 4, 10; Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History (Arco: Arco Advertiser, 1926), 6; Larry R. Jones, "Staging to the South Boise Mines," Idaho Yesterdays 29 (Summer 1985): 19-25; Hutchison and Jones, eds., 135.

³⁴ Merrill, "Tim Goodale and His Cutoff," 14-15; Byron D. Lusk, "Golden Cattle Kingdoms of Idaho," M.S. Thesis, Utah State University, 1978, 87; Carrie A. Strahorn, Fifteen Thousand Miles by Stage (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1911), 151-152, 450-451.

³⁵5 Emily Fletcher Towell, "Covered Wagon Diary," 1881, typescript, Idaho State Historical Society, 13.

³⁶ Annie Biggers Elliot Foster, Annie Jane's Journal [1904], ed. Marilyn R. Harbord (Chico: Glen E. Biggers, 1974), 34.

³⁷ Merrill, "Tim Goodale and His Cutoff," 15; Idaho's Highway History. 1863-1975 (Boise: Idaho Department of Transportation, 1985), 43, 69.

³⁸ Hutchison and Jones, 135, show a photograph of a rock cairn on the plain.

¹ All quotations from Hugh T. Lovin, "Sage, Jacks, and Snake Plain Pioneers," Idaho Yesterdays 22 (Winter 1979): 13. See also Merrill D. Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho (Caldwell: Caxton Printers, 1942), 319.

² Merrill D. Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho, 187; Leonard J. Arrington, "Irrigation in the Snake River Valley: An Historical Overview," Idaho Yesterdays 30 (Spring/Summer 1986): 4; Davis Bitton, "Peopling the Upper Snake: The Second Wave of Mormon Settlement in Idaho," Idaho Yesterdays 23 (Summer 1979): 47-52; Davis Bitton, "Blackfoot: The Making of a Community, 1878-1910," Idaho Yesterdays 19 (Spring 1975): 2-15.

³ Rodman W. Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West. 1848-1880 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), 139-140; Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho, 194-195.

⁴ Carlos A. Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows: A History of Idaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 99-102; J. Orin Oliphant, On the Cattle Ranges of the Oregon Country (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968), 70, 73-75, 106-111, 168-169.

⁵ Carlos A. Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows: A History of Idaho 83-84; see also Davis Bitton, "Peopling the Upper Snake," 48.

⁶ Hugh T. Lovin, "Sage, Jacks, and Snake Plain Pioneers," Idaho Yesterdays 22 (Winter 1979): 14, for quotations and population statistics. Information on irrigation in Idaho has been drawn from a number of sources. See the above citation, for example, as well as Hugh T. Lovin, "Water, Arid Land, and Visions of Advancement on the Snake River Plain," Idaho Yesterdays 35 (Spring 1991): 3-18.

⁷ Byron D. Lusk, "Golden Cattle Kingdoms of Idaho," M.S. Thesis, Utah State University, 87.

⁸ Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho, 195; Elizabeth C. Adamson, History of Carey, Idaho (n.p., 1971), 8-9.

⁹ Elizabeth C. Adamson, History of Carey, Idaho, 36-40; George A. McLeod, History of Alturas and Blaine Counties. 1857-1949, 3rd ed. (Hailey: Hailey Times, 1950), 21, 28-29.

¹⁰ Byron D. Lusk, "Golden Cattle Kingdoms of Idaho," 41, 46; Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History (Arco: Arco Advertiser, 1926), 2-4.

¹¹ F. Ross Peterson, Idaho: A Bicentennial History (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1976), 129; Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History 3-4; Merrill D. Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho, 195. References to early settlement can be found in James D. Martin, "With the Lost River Pioneers," Lost River Valley Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society (hereafter ISHS), 9. See also Works Progress Administration, The Idaho Encyclopedia, Vardis Fisher, ed. (Caldwell: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1938), 246-248.

¹² Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History, 6; "Pioneer of "79 Tells of Historical Events of Valley," Arco Advertiser, November 4, 1921.

¹³ Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History, 7; George A. McLeod, A History of Alturas and Blaine Counties 38; Michael Ostrogorsky, "Historical Overview for, the Craters of the Moon National Monument of Idaho," typescript, 1983, Craters of the Moon National Monument Museum Collection, 8.

¹⁴ James D. Martin, "With the Lost River Pioneers," 2, 9; Michael Ostrogorsky, "Historical Overview for the Craters of the Moon National Monument of Idaho," 8.

¹⁵ Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River, History, 3; C. Hart Merriam, "Journal of a Trip in Idaho 1890, August 15-October 24," box 4, file 1890, "Idaho," C. Hart Merriam Collection, Library of Congress, 38; Israel C. Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 36, for quotation.

¹⁶ Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History, 14.

¹⁷ William D. Gertsch, "The Upper Snake River Project: A Historical Study of Reclamation and Regional Development, 1890-1930," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington, 1974, 39-40.

¹⁸ William D. Gertsch, "The Upper Snake River Project: A Historical Study of Reclamation and Regional Development, 1890-1930," 39-40.

¹⁹ Ibid., preface.

²⁰ Hugh T. Lovin, "The Carey Act in Idaho, 1895-1925: An Experiment in Free Enterprise Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Quarterly 78 (October 1987): 125. It should be noted that other irrigation projects on the Snake River contributed to the permanent settlement of the region. These were the Minidoka Project, completed 1907, and the American Falls Project, completed 1927. But these projects were undertaken with the assistance of the National Reclamation Act (1902) and relied on federal assistance provided by the U.S. Reclamation Service (Bureau of Reclamation); see Leonard J. Arrington, "Irrigation in the Snake River Valley: An Historical Overview," Idaho Yesterdays 30 (Spring/Summer, 1986): 6-7.

²¹ Hugh T. Lovin, "The Carey Act in Idaho, 1895-1925," 123, 125.

²² Hugh T. Lovin, "Water, Arid Land, and Visions of Advancement on the Snake River Plain," 3; "Lost River Valley From 1879-1923," Arco Advertiser, June 1, 1923; Mikel H. Williams, The History of Development and Current Status of the Carey Act in Idaho (Boise: Idaho Department of Reclamation, 1970), 18.

²³ Mikel H. Williams, The History of Development and Current Status of the Carey Act in Idaho, 18-20; "Another Twin Falls," Arco Advertiser, August 20, 1909; "100 Acres a Minute," Arco Advertiser, September 17, 1909; "Big Lost River Valley From 1879-1923," Arco Advertiser, June 1, 1923.

²⁴ Williams, 20; Thelma Shortridge, "The Mackay Dam Controversy," typescript, August 1, 1959, Dams--Idaho Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society, 2.

²⁵ "Lost River Valley From 1879-1923"; Thelma Shortridge, "The Mackay Dam Controversy," 3-4, 13; Williams, 20.

²⁶ Gertsch, "The Upper Snake River Project," 94.

²⁷ U.S. Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States. 1910 vol. 2, Population (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 414; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States. 1920. vol. 3, Population (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, ca. 1921), 235, 580. Clarence A. Bottolfsen, "A Salute to Arco--The New Atomic City of the Great Northwest," ca. 1949, Butte County Vertical File, ISHS. For a related article on the history of the testing station, see Jack M. Holl, "The National Reactor Testing Station: The Atomic Energy Commission in Idaho, 1949-1962," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 85 (January 1994): 15-24.

²⁸ Lusk, "Golden Cattle Kingdoms of Idaho," 87-88.

²⁹ O.E. Forsling, "Sheep to Cheyenne," Idaho Yesterdays 8 (Summer 1964): 28, first quotation; Lusk, 89, second quotation. See also, J. Orin Oliphant, On the Cattle Ranges of the Oregon Country, 107-111.

³⁰ "Complete Story of Lost Valley; Found after 65 years' Study and Hunting," Idaho Republican, January 24, 1927; Harold T. Steams, A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho, Bulletin 13 (Boise: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology, 1928), 41. The rock cairn at Vermillion Chasm Waterhole is apparently still extant, but its authenticity needs to be verified. The cow bone inscription was apparently added to the monument's museum collection.

³¹ Harold T. Stearns to A.E. Demaray, Acting Director, National Park Service, October 23, 1926; Samuel A. Paisley, Custodian, Craters of the Moon National Monument, to A.E. Demaray, November 6, 1926, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, entry 7, box 580, file 0.35, part 2, National Archives.

³² "A Trip to the Valley of the Moon," Arco Advertiser June 17, 1921; "Moon Valley Needs Signs," June 14, 1923, newspaper clipping, no title, box 4, file 18, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers, Boise State University, for quotation; Stearns to Demaray, October 23, 1926; Harold T. Stearns, "Field Notes--1926 Survey of Craters of the Moon," Craters of the Moon National Monument Museum Collection, 227, 238.

³³ "Moon Valley Needs Signs," for quotations; Edward F. Rhodenbaugh to National Geographic Magazine, March 1, 1924, box 2, file 4, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers.

³⁴ Roy M. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage: The Public Domain. 1776-1970, 2nd rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976), 362-363, 387.

³⁵ Ree E. Montgomery, June 7, 1993, personal communication.

³⁶ Homestead Entry, Mary F. Downer, September 2, 1919, Records of the Bureau of Land Management, Record Group 49, Idaho State Land Office, Boise, Mixed Land Case Files, Idaho, ca. 1908-1966, box 324, file 038586, National Archives--Pacific Northwest Region (hereafter cited as RG 49, Mixed Land Case Files, Idaho, NA-PNR).

³⁷ Homestead Entry, Oscar B. Morris, July 14, 1919, RG 49, Mixed Land Cases, Idaho, ca. 1906-1966, box 1040, file 022129, NA-PNR.

³⁸ Homestead Entry, Earl R. Quincy, November 15, 1919, RG 49, Mixed Land Cases, Idaho, ca. 1906-1966, box 1054, file 025683, NA-PNR.

³⁹ Homestead Entry, Thomas H. Williams, September 9, 1903, RG 49, Tract Book for Township 2 North, Range 24 East, entry 01188, original on file, NA-PNR. Annie Biggers Elliot Foster, Annie Jane's Journal, 1904, Marilyn R. Harbord, ed. (Chico: Glen E. Biggers, 1974), 34.

⁴⁰ The information summarized in this paragraph is drawn from Homestead Entries, John B. Arthur and Edward B. Arthur, October, 8, 1917, May 29, 1918, January 28, 1919, May 15, 1919, RG 49, Tract Book for Township 2 North, Range 24 East, Hailey entries 021006, 023084, 023085, 023831, original on file, NA-PSR. These also can be found on microfiche in the Bureau of Land Management's Boise office. Information on the Kilpatrick Brothers is drawn from a Warranty Deed, September 8, 1932, file L 54, history files, Craters of the Moon National Monument.

⁴¹ This parcel was 37.26 acres in Section 28, which was added to the monument after the 1928 expansion. It was thought to contain a spring and was added to increase the monument's water supply. See David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 36-39.

⁴² Harold T. Stearns, "Field Notes--1926 Survey of Craters of the Moon," Craters of the Moon National Monument Museum Collection, 198.

⁴³ Interview with Roger J. Contor, September 6, 1990.

¹ Merle W. Wells, Gold Camps and Silver Cities: Nineteenth-Century Mining in Central and Southern Idaho, 2nd ed. (Boise: Idaho State Historical Society, 1983), 1, 158-159; quotations from Rodman W. Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West. 1848-1880 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), 138. See also Rodman W. Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition. 1859-1900 (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1988), 24-91.

² Rodman W. Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 136, 138, and 6. Quotations from 136.

³ Merle W. Wells, Gold Camps and Silver Cities, 1; Rodman W. Paul, The Great Plains and Far West in Transition, 46-47.

⁴ Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 138.

⁵ Wells, 1, for quotation; Paul, 139-140.

⁶ Wells, 1.

⁷ Wells, 112; Paul, 136.

⁸ Wells, 112-113; Clark C. Spence, "The Boom of the Wood River Mines," Idaho Yesterdays 23 (Summer 1979): 3, 12; Merrill D. Beal, A History of Southeastern Idaho (Caldwell: Caxton Printers, 1942), 194-195.

⁹ Wells, 122; Alfred L. Anderson, Geology and Ore Deposits of the Lava Creek District, Idaho, Bulletin 32 (Moscow: University of Idaho, 1929), 1, 4.

¹⁰ Clarence A. Bottolfsen, Little Bits of Lost River History (Arco: Arco Advertiser, 1926), 7; James D. Martin, "With the Lost River Pioneers," typescript, Lost River Valley Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society, 2.

¹¹ Wells, Gold Camps and Silver Cities. 122; see also, the Wood River Times, April 4, 1887, which cites Hood as being the "pioneer discoverer" by as early as 1881.

¹² Wells, 122.

¹³ Ibid. Daniel J. Hutchison and Larry R. Jones, eds., Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho, Adventures in the Past--Idaho Cultural Resource Series, Number 1 (Boise: Bureau of Land Management and Idaho State Historical Society, 1993), 145.

¹⁴ Wells, 122; Martin, "With the Lost River Pioneers," 11; see also Wood River Times, May 5, 1886. It should be noted that the Wood River Times is a good source, and perhaps the only primary source, for the development of Martin, Era, and the Lava Creek district. Much of the information summarized in the above citations, namely Merle Wells' work, has been drawn from the Times. Neither time nor the scope of this project allowed for combing the paper for the history of the district, since it was adequately addressed by Wells.

¹⁵ Alfred L. Anderson, Geology and Ore Deposits of the Lava Creek District, Idaho, 30. Information on the structures and the types of businesses that occupied them is drawn from several sources. See, for example, Wells, 122; clipping in Era Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society; and Wood River Times. September 1, 1885.

¹⁶ Wells, 123; Daniel J. Hutchison and Larry R. Jones, eds., Emigrant Trails of Southern Idaho, 145.

¹⁷ Ethel M. Ackerman, "Big Lost River and Old Arco," Snake River Echoes v. 5, n. 4 (1976): 77.

¹⁸ Anderson, 56, 60, 62-63, 65.

¹⁹ Anderson, Geology and Ore Deposits of the Lava Creek District. Idaho, 56; Carl Lausen, General Land Office, to Director, National Park Service, May 23, 1934, [report on mining claims], file L, Craters of the Moon National Monument Archives, Craters of the Moon National Monument.

²⁰ Carl Lausen to Director, National Park Service, May 23, 1934.

²¹ For acreage see Memorandum, Conrad L. Wirth, Chief of Lands, to Regional Director, Region Four, October 3, 1944, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, Accession 76A1102, Federal Record Center# 131597, box 4, file L 14, Federal Record Center, Pacific Northwest Region. Anderson, Geology and Ore Deposits of the Lava Creek District. Idaho, 59; Clausen to Director, May 23, 1934; Quin A. Blackburn, "Mineral Report, Craters of the Moon National Monument," October 11, 1960, technical files, Craters of the Moon National Monument, 3.

²² Anderson, 59.

²³ Harold T. Steams, "Field Notes--1926 Survey of Craters of the Moon," Craters of the Moon Museum Collection, Craters of the Moon National Monument, 198; Anderson, 59; A.T. Bicknell, [Inspection Report of Creek Mining Claim], February 25, 1935, history files, Craters of the Moon National Monument.

²⁴ Quin A. Blackburn, "Mineral Report, Craters of the Moon National Monument," 20-21.

²⁵ Ibid.

²⁶ David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 44-45, 188-189, especially notes 281 and 282. For permission to remove the buildings in the 1960s, see Roger J. Contor to Wesley R. Brown, December 10, 1964, RG 79, Acc. 761062, FRC# 131598, box 5, file L 14, Federal Record Center, Pacific Northwest Region.

²⁷ For information on the "naturalization" of the Martin Mine and compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, see Charles H. Odegaard to John Hill, April 15, 1995, and Robert M. Yohe II to Jim Thompson, September 28, 1994, file H 4217, Central Classified Files, National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Regional Office, Seattle, Washington.

²⁸ The property types outlined here have been adapted from Bruce J. Noble, Jr. and Robert Spude, National Register Bulletin 42; Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating, and Registering Historic Mining Properties (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1992), 9-10, 19,21. All quotations here and below are from this citation.

¹ Peter G. Boag, "Overlanders and the Snake River Region: A Case Study of Popular Landscape Perception in the Early West," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 84 (October 1993): 122-129; Carolyn Rhodes Jones, "An Evolving View of the Landscape: Trappers, Tourists, and the Great Shoshone Falls," Idaho Yesterdays 23 (Summer 1979): 19-27. For a general overview of tourism in the West, see Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957).

² Robert G. Athearn, "The Oregon Short Line," Idaho Yesterdays 13 (Winter 1969-70): 7; Carlos A. Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows: A History of Idaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 146-147, 170-172.

³ Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows, 167; Rhodes-Jones, "An Evolving View of the Landscape," 22-23. Hans Huth, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957; Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America; Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969). Nancy F. Renk, "Off to the Lakes: Vacationing in Northern Idaho during the Railroad Era, 1885-1915," Idaho Yesterdays 34 (Summer 1990): 2-15.

⁴ Rhodes-Jones, "An Evolving View of the Landscape," 25; Thomas R. Cox, The Park Builders: A History of State Parks in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 7. For an overview of changing views of western scenery in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Anne Farrar Hyde, An American Vision: Far Western Landscape and National Culture. 1820-1920 (New York: New York University Press, 1990).

⁵ Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (July 1982): 330-336, 342, 344-349.

⁶ Frederick L. Paxson, "The Highway Movement, 1916-1935," American Historical Review 51 (1946): 236-253; Peirce F: Lewis, "America Between the Wars: The Engineering of a New Geography," in Robert D. Mitchell and Paul A. Groves, eds., North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent (Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield, 1987): 411-412.

⁷ Schwantes, In Mountain Shadows. 193-194.

⁸ Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), 3-4; "Forging the Park Chain," Outing 74 (August 1919): 63; Stephen T. Mather, "What I Am Trying to Do With the National Parks," The World's Work 48 (May 1924): 42. Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 93-94. One of the first uses of the "Begin with Idaho" phrase appears in The State of Idaho Official Report of the Bureau of Immigration. Labor, and Statistics, 1912 (Boise: the Bureau, 1912), which accompany scenic photos; see overleaf to article by James C. Lewis, "Pleasure and Health Resorts," 161-163, in above citation. Robert W. Limbert, mentioned below, also used the phrase in his Idaho display at the World's Fair in 1915. That the Snake River Plain was becoming a tourist attraction is mentioned in Schwantes, In Mountains Shadows, 147, though he states that much of the attention was focused on Shoshone Falls.

⁹ Nicholas Casner, "Two-Gun Limbert': Man From the Sawtooths," Idaho Yesterdays 32 (Spring 1988): 2-10; David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 18-32.

¹⁰ Information on Limbert's activities can be seen in the discussion below regarding his activities at Craters of the Moon. For a brief account of Sun Valley, see Schwantes, 210-211.

¹¹ Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners, A Preliminary Report on the Parks, Parkways and Recreational Areas of Idaho (January 1939), 96-97, quotation from 81.

¹² Julius C. Merrill, Bound for Idaho: The 1864 Trail Journal of Julius Merrill, ed. Irving R. Merrill (Moscow: University of Idaho Press, 1988), 101.

¹³ Carrie A. Strahorn, Fifteen Thousand Miles by Stage (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1911), 151-152, quotation from 151.

¹⁴ Strahorn, Fifteen Thousand Miles, 450-451.

¹⁵ Strahorn, 440-441.

¹⁶ Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West 46-57, 88-92; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 33-64.

¹⁷ William E. Davis, "George Forman: The Great Pedestrian," Idaho Yesterdays 10 (Spring 1966): 4-5.

¹⁸ Sir Archibald Geikie, Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad (New York, 1882), 214, 237-238, 242-245.

¹⁹ E.W. Jones, "Some Wonders of Idaho," Historical Society of Southern California Publications 1 (1888): 23-29, quotations from 28-29, 26.

²⁰ Jones, "Some Wonders of Idaho," 27.

²¹ Quoted in Rhodes-Jones, "An Evolving View of the Landscape," 24.

²² Israel C. Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Southern Idaho (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 13-28, quotations from 19 and 20.

²³ Israel C. Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Southern Idaho, 19-20, quotations from both pages.

²⁴ Russell, Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains in Southern Idaho, 72-106, quotations from 72, 73, 106.

²⁵ Henry F. Cope, "Making Gardens Out of Lava Dust," World Today 10 (June 1906): 622; Hugh T. Lovin, "Water, Arid Land, and Visions of Advancement on the Snake River Plain," Idaho Yesterdays 35 (Spring 1991): 10. For booster literature, see also John S. Mills, "A Gateway to the Future," Sunset Magazine 25 (July 1910): 119-120; "Twin Falls and Triple Opportunity," Sunset Magazine 25 (September 1910): 353-356; "The Secret Success in Blackfoot," Sunset Magazine 25 (November 1910): 589-590.

²⁶ Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind 3rd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); "Complete Story of the Lost Valley," Idaho Republican, January 24, 1927.

²⁷ Mikel H. Williams, The History of Development and Current Status of the Carey Act in Idaho (Boise: Idaho Reclamation Service, 1970), 18-20; "100 Acres a Minute," Arco Advertiser. September 17, 1909; "Arco is Incorporated," Arco Advertiser November 26, 1909; "Big Lost River Valley From 1879-1923," Arco Advertiser June 1, 1923; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States. 1910 vol. 2, Population (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 414; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. 3, Population (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, ca. 1921), 235, 580.

²⁸ "Another Twin Falls," Arco Advertiser, August 20, 1909; "Arco the Coming City of the Big Lost River Valley," Arco Advertiser May 26, 1911; "Big Lost River Valley From 1879-1923," Arco Advertiser, June 1, 1923.

²⁹ "Excursion to Arco," Arco Advertiser, June 24, 1910.

³⁰ Runte, National Parks, 93-94; "America First the New Slogan," Arco Advertiser, September 13, 1912.

³¹ "Better Roads," Arco Advertiser, May 6, 1910; "New Road Being Opened," Arco Advertiser, August 12, 1910; "New Automobiles," Arco Advertiser, March 14, 1913, for quotation.

³² "State Highway Engineers Surveying East and West Roads Towards Arco," Arco Advertiser, September 24, 1914; "A Scenic Detour from the Lincoln Highway," Arco Advertiser, June 11, 1915; "Autos to be Admitted to Park," Arco Advertiser May 7, 1915; "Fishing is 'Bully' on Big Lost River!!!" Arco Advertiser, April 9, 1915; "Information for Tourists and Campers in the Sawtooth Park," Arco Advertiser, August 20, 1915. Quotation from "Fishing is 'Bully.'"

³³ "The Devil's Playground," Arco Advertiser, June 7, 1912.

³⁴ "The Devil's Playground Re-Visited," Arco Advertiser, June 21, 1912.

³⁵ Ibid.

³⁶ "A Scenic Detour From the Lincoln Highway," Arco Advertiser, June 11, 1915.

³⁷ "Ancient Craters," Arco Advertiser, June 27, 1913. The sightseers also claimed to have been infused with enthusiasm for the area through their guide. Era Martin, a neighboring rancher and early explorer of Craters country, had an interest in the volcanic area's "curiosities" that was "contagious." In fact it was for him that some referred to the area as the Martin Lavabeds.

³⁸ "Lost River Valleys--The Butte County Country," Arco Advertiser, December 11, 1914. See also "Fishing is 'Bully' on Big Lost River!!!" Arco Advertiser, April 9, 1915.

³⁹ See, for example, "Discover A Great Cave Near Arco," Arco Advertiser, June 2, 1916.

⁴⁰ "Central Highway Passes Thru Arco," Arco Advertiser January 31, 1919.

⁴¹ "Sawtooth Mountains Scenic Wonderland," Arco Advertiser, September 10, 1920.

⁴² "The Lost River Valley As a Scenic Interest," Arco Advertiser, December 17, 1920.

⁴³ Ibid.

⁴⁴ "Other Towns Are Boosting Craters," Arco Advertiser, December 24, 1920; "Rupert Citizens Want Crater Road," Arco Advertiser May 27, 1921; "Oregon Short Line to Feature 'Moon Valley' in Folder," Arco Advertiser, September 2, 1921; "Auto Brings Valley of the Moon Within Easy Reach of Tourists," Idaho Statesman, July 17, 1921.

⁴⁵ Nicholas Casner, "'Two-Gun Limbert': The Man From the Sawtooths," Idaho Yesterdays 32 (Spring 1988): 6-7; David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 18-32.

⁴⁶ Nicholas Casner, "'Two-Gun Limbert': The Man from the Sawtooths," 2-4.

⁴⁷ Limbert recounts his explorations in several places, the best source is Robert W. Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'" National Geographic 45 (March 1924): 303-328.

⁴⁸ Clarence A. Bottolfsen, "A Tribute to the Late Robert Limbert," file H 14, Craters of the Moon National Monument Archives, Craters of the Moon National Monument; "A Trip to the Moon Right Here in Idaho," Idaho Sunday Statesman, April 21, 1921.

⁴⁹ Robert W. Limbert, "Our Next National Park," typescript, 1-2,7, box 1, file 18, Robert W. Limbert Papers, Boise State University, Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'" 327.

⁵⁰ "A Trip to the Moon," Idaho Sunday Statesman, April 10, 1921.

⁵¹ "A Trip to the Moon"; "Would Create a National Park in South Idaho," Idaho Daily Statesman, April 1, 1921; "Expedition Ready to Explore Moon Valley," Arco Advertiser. June 10, 1921; "'Moon Valley' Gets Many Specimens," Idaho Daily Statesman, n.d., 1921; "'Moon Valley' Trampers Back Friday Morning," Idaho Daily Statesman, June 25, 1921.

⁵² "Valley of the Moon, Idaho, Declared a Wonderland," Salt Lake Tribune, July 8, 1921.

⁵³ Robert W. Limbert, "Among the 'Craters of the Moon,'"; Casner, "'Two-Gun Limbert,'" 7. See also, Gilbert Grosvenor to Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, March 8, 1924, box 2, file 4, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers, Boise State University.

⁵⁴ "A Trip to the Moon," Idaho Sunday Statesman April 10, 1921; "A Trip to the Valley of the Moon," Arco Advertiser June 17, 1921; Pilgrim Brotherhood of the First Congregational Church of Boise to Addison T. Smith, June 15, 1921, and Community Council of Boise to Warren G. Harding, June 24, 1921, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, entry 7, Central Classified Files, Craters of the Moon National Monument, box 580, file 035, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

⁵⁵ "Community Picnic a Successful Event," Arco Advertiser, June 17, 1921.

⁵⁶ "Limbert to Talk about Craters," Arco Advertiser, March 17, 1922; Hotel at Craters Soon," Arco Advertiser, May 19, 1922.

⁵⁷ Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument, 26-31.

⁵⁸ "Craters Proclaimed National Monument," Arco Advertiser, May 9, 1924.

⁵⁹ For more coverage of these topics, see Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument. 19-32 and 245-283. A typical newspaper article describing a trip to the monument, see "A Trip to the Valley of the Moon," Arco Advertiser, June 7, 1921.

⁶⁰ Arno B. Cammerer to E.L. Thompson, June 23, 1924, RG 79, CRMO, box 580, file 0.35, NA.

⁶¹ "Craters Beckon Explorers into Unknown Realms," Idaho Statesman May 31, 1928.

⁶² "U.P. Officials Visit Craters," Arco Advertiser, July 9, 1926; "Pack Train Concession in Craters Given to Limbert," Arco Advertiser May 6, 1927; "Limbert Organizes Craters Moon Tours," Arco Advertiser, June 10, 1927; Robert Limbert to Acting Director, National Park Service, March 27, 1927, RG 79, CRMO, box 580, file 035, NA.

⁶³ Pulvers Official Automobile Map: Idaho Central Forest Highway (Seattle: Edw. W. Pulver Map Company, ca. 1924).

⁶⁴ Robert W. Limbert, Unknown Places in Idaho (Chicago: Pool Brothers, Inc., 1927), 3,8-11, 22. A copy of this guide can be found in box 1, file 37, Robert W. Limbert Collection, Boise State University.

⁶⁵ "Custodian's Monthly Reports, Craters of the Moon National Monument," June 1, 1929; August 1, 1929; August 1, 1930; August 1, 1932, history files, Craters of the Moon National Monument. For an example of the type of literature most likely given out by the travel association, see "The Craters of the Moon National Monument: A Region of Weird Attractions," ca. 1925-1927, pamphlet on file, Craters of the Moon National Monument Museum Collection. The road signs were about two feet square with an arrow passing through a crescent moon with the word "Craters" written above it in yellow letters.

⁶⁶ Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, "Field Trip Logs," 1925-1928, box 7, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers, Boise State University.

⁶⁷ Ibid. Several years later, for example, he took the wrong cutoff and nursed his ailing auto across an "old rough trail" west of Blackfoot. Finally arriving at Arco, he hurried toward the monument trying, futilely, to outrun a rain storm. At the monument, Rhodenbaugh and his companions set up camp and awoke the next morning to snow. After touring more of the volcanic formations, they drove back toward Blackfoot fighting heavy snow and slick dirt roads all the way, in what the geologist described tersely as "a hard trip."

⁶⁸ Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, "Craters of the Moon National Monument," typescript, ca. 1924, box 4, file 3, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers, Boise State University; Norah D. Stearns, "Exploring The Craters of the Moon, Idaho," Geographical Society of Philadelphia, Bulletin 26 (October 1928): 279-280.

⁶⁹ Most of these impressions are drawn from several oral interviews with early monument visitors. See, for example, Ed Techick Interview, January 21, 1986, history files, Craters of the Moon National Monument.

⁷⁰ Norah D. Stearns, "Exploring The Craters of the Moon, Idaho," 279-280.

⁷¹ Stearns, 280, 282.

⁷² Stephen T. Mather to Samuel A. Paisley, October 28, 1926, RG 79, CRMO, file 035, part 2, NA. See also Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument 288-292, for a brief history of the concession.

⁷³ "Log Structures for Concession [at] Craters [of the] Moon," Arco Advertiser, June 10, 1927; "Comforts Come to Craters of the Moon," Idaho Statesman, ca. October 1927, news clipping, Craters of the Moon Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society.

⁷⁴ Custodian, R.B. Moore to Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, April 21, 1930, box 2, file 5, Rhodenbaugh Papers.

⁷⁵ Louter, 288-292.

⁷⁶ Jo G. Martin to Horace M. Albright, July 12, 1929, RG 79, CRMO, file 0.35, pt. 5, NA.

⁷⁷ Albert T. Bicknell, "Final Report on Comfort Station," June 17, 1935, Central Classified Files, file D,Craters of the Moon Archives, Craters of the Moon National Monument.

⁷⁸ Louter, 260-261, 252-257.

⁷⁹ Louter, 200-201. See also, "Craters Offer Ideal Site for Sports," Arco Advertiser January 21, 1938.

⁸⁰ Louter, 291-292. Quotation from Memorandum, Superintendent Aubrey F. Houston to Regional Director, Region Four, October 5, 1950, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, Central Classified Files, Craters of the Moon National Monument, file 600-01, National Archives--Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno, California.

⁸¹ Louter, 291-292.

¹ Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 2nd rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 11-32. Quotation from 12.

² Department of the Interior, Report of the Director of the National Park Service. 1920 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1920), 176-177; Thomas R. Cox, The Park Builders: A History of State Parks in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 5.

³ H. Duane Hampton, "Opposition to National Parks," Journal of Forest History 25 (January 1981): 37; Thomas R. Cox, The Park Builders: A History of State Parks in the Pacific Northwest, 9.

⁴ Thomas R. Cox, "Weldon Heyburn, Lake Chatcolet, and the Evolving Concept of Public Parks," Idaho Yesterdays 24 (Summer 1980): 11; Cox, The Park Builders, 104-107.

⁵ Cox, The Park Builders, 106-107. Cox includes one other reason and that is that most premier scenic and recreational lands were owned by the federal government, and state park proponents looked to federal authorities rather than state officials for assistance.

⁶ Jean Conly Smith, "What is There of National Interest in the Proposed Sawtooth National Park?"; Smith, "In God's Own Country: The Proposed Sawtooth National Park in Idaho," ca. 1911, Jean Conly Smith Papers, Idaho State Historical Society. Ralph E. Woods, "The Proposed Sawtooth National Park," New West Magazine 7 (May 1916): 7-11; Enos Mills, "Proposed Sawtooth National Park," New West Magazine 7 (October 1916): 18-22.

⁷ Thomas C. Stanford to Addison T. Smith, November 17, 1922, box 1, file 7, Thomas C. Stanford Papers, Boise State University.

⁸ Stanford to Smith, November 17, 1922; Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), 212.

⁹ Addison T. Smith to Thomas C. Stanford, September 28, 1932, box 2, file 7, Thomas C. Stanford Papers.

¹⁰ Josephine Conly Smith Vaughn to Senator Frank Church, June 5, 1960, Jean Conly Smith Papers; Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 184-185.

¹¹ Department of the Interior, Report of the Director of the National Park Service. 1924 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1924), 15-16. Hal K. Rothman in "Second-Class Sites: National Monuments and the Growth of the National Park System," Environmental Review 10 (Spring 1986): 44-56 and Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989) suggests the subordinate position national monuments played in the early park system.

¹¹² For a more complete treatment of this change of perception and its influence on Craters of the Moon, see the discussion in the chapter on tourism and recreation. General sources are Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience and Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).

¹³ Ibid. For further discussion of the monument's establishment, see David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 13-32.

¹⁴ Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1984), 29-30; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 170-173. To suggest the magnitude of the National Park Service's mission, consider the following. In 1917 national parks received about 487,000 visitors, and in 1983 about 240 million; see National Parks for a New Generation (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1985), 69. For NPS Rustic, see Gretchen A. Luxenberg and Cathy A. Gilbert, The Rustic Landscape of Rim Village, 1927-1941 (Seattle: National Park Service, 1990), 17-23; and Linda F. McClelland, Presenting Nature: The Historic Landscape Design of the National Park Service. 1916-1942 (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1993), 73-114.

¹⁵ Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, 52-54.

¹⁶ Horace M. Albright to Stephen T. Mather, February 12, 1925, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, entry 7, Craters of the Moon National Monument, box 580, file 0.35, part 1, National Archives. For a more complete story of the monument's development, see David Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1992), 245-283. For a discussion of national monuments as subordinate to parks, see Hal K. Rothman, "Second-Class Sites," and Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments.

¹⁷ "Custodian's Monthly Report, Craters of the Moon National Monument," October 1, 1925 and July 1, 1927, Craters of the Moon National Monument Archives, Craters of the Moon National Monument. Identification of the headquarters by its flagpole and survey marker can be found in Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, "Field Trip Logs," box 7, June 4-8, 1923, Edward F. Rhodenbaugh Papers, Boise State University. EA. Davidson, "Craters of the Moon National Monument," July 3, 1927, RG 79, CRMO, box 582, file 207, NA.

¹⁸ See, for example, "'Crater' Road Completed," clipping, no title, August 1922, Craters of the Moon Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society, and Louter, Craters of the Moon National Monument. 250-251.

¹⁹ Louter, Craters of the Moon, 251.

²⁰ Arno B. Cammerer to Addison T. Smith, April 13, 1925, RG 79, CRMO, file 0.35. Pt. 2, NA; "Custodian's Annual Report for 1926, Craters of the Moon National Monument," CRMO Archives.

²¹ Albright to Mather, February 12, 1925; "Custodians Monthly Report," July 8, 1926, CRMO Archives; Bureau of Public Roads, "Preliminary Investigation Report on Craters of the Moon National Monument: Echo Crater Road," Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, Central Classified Files, Craters of the Moon National Monument, file 600, National Archives, Pacific Sierra Region.

²² Louter, 261.

²³ Bert H. Burrell to Stephen T. Mather, July 21, 1927, RG 79, CRMO, box 580?, 0.35, pt. 3, NA.

²⁴ Gretchen A. Luxenberg and Cathy A. Gilbert, The Rustic Landscape of Rim Village. 1927-1941, 18.

²⁵ Burrell to Mather, July 21, 1927; Davidson, "Craters of the Moon National Monument." Burrell and Davidson drafted separate reports but together they make up a whole for the purposes of development history.

²⁶ Burrell to Mather, July 21, 1927; Davidson, "Craters of the Moon"; Louter, Craters of the Moon, 267.

²⁷ Louter, 77-81. For a sense of the public's development fever, see "Idaho, Urge Opening of This Wonder," Boise Capital News, October 3, 1929.

²⁸ Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, 29-30.

²⁹ Stephen T. Mather to Samuel A. Paisley, October 28, 1926, RG 79, CRMO, [box 580], file 0.35, pt. 2, NA; Davidson, "Craters of the Moon National Monument." The influence of Union Pacific officials seems particularly relevant to the approval of Crater Inn, since Mather's consent came shortly after President Carl R. Gray visited the monument and later said he would talk to Mather about getting conveniences in general, in which "refreshments" were included. See Arco Advertiser, July 9, 1926.

³⁰ Memorandum, A.E. Demaray to Moskey, December 1, 1926, RG 79, CRMO, box 580, file 0.35, pt. 2, NA. The Park Service's design philosophy was set down by Secretary of the Interior Franklin K, Lane who stated in a 1918 policy directive that in order to preserve natural scenery no new structures of importance could be erected unless approved by a landscape engineer (or landscape architect). See Luxenberg and Gilbert, 19, for the directive's influence on the NPS Rustic style, planning, and landscape architecture.

³¹ Davidson, "Craters of the Moon"; Louter, 290.

³² "Custodian's Monthly Report," October 1, 1927, CRMO Archives; Demaray to Moskey, December 1, 1926. Dimensions for Crater Inn vary. See, for example, the original sketch of Crater Inn's floor plan can be in RG 79, CRMO, box 580, file 035, NA, and "Log Structures for Concessions [at] Craters of the Moon, Arco Advertiser June 10, 1927.

³³ "Log Structures for Concession [at] Craters [of the] Moon," Arco Advertiser, June 10, 1927; "Comforts Come to Craters of the Moon," Idaho Statesman, ca. October 1927, clipping, Craters of the Moon Vertical File, Idaho State Historical Society.

³⁴ Custodian, R.B. Moore to Edward F. Rhodenbaugh, April 21, 1930, box 2, file 5, Rhodenbaugh Papers.

³⁵ Jo G. Martin to Horace M. Albright, July 12, 1929, RG 79, CRMO, file 0.35, Pt. 5, NA.

³⁶ Louter, 290-292; Martin to Albright, July 12, 1929, for quotation.

³⁷ Robert B. Moore to Director, National Park Service, October 5, 1929, RG 79, CRMO, file 0.35, pt. 5, NA.

³⁸ Joe Joffe to Horace Albright, May 12, 1931, RG 79, CRMO, file 0.35, pt. 9, NA.

³⁹ "Cottage for Craters," May 29, 1931, Arco Advertiser; "Cottage at Craters Finished Last Week," November 13, 1931, Arco Advertiser. National Park Service design guidelines that provide some context for this structure can be found in Albert H. Good, Park and Recreation Structures, first published in 1935 (Boulder: Graybooks, 1990), 73.

⁴⁰ The building history can be found in "Log Equipment Shed," file D 34, CRMO Archives. For an analysis of park building designs for warehouses, see Albert H. Good, Park and Recreation Structures, 89; the warehouse closely resembles the style employed in the construction of a garage in Scenic State Park, Minnesota; see Good, 94-95.

⁴¹ Good, 129, describes the importance of park comfort stations.

⁴² Good, 140-141, illustrates typical examples of "back-to-back" comfort station plans. Although its split-log roof seems unique, the comfort station resembles most the comfort station from Vogel State Park, Georgia.

⁴³ Albert T. Bicknell, "Final Report on Comfort Station," June 17, 1935, file D, CRMO Archives. See Comfort Station, Craters of the Moon National Monument, drawings 131/3001, 131/3001A.

⁴⁴ "Report on Road Widening," July 24, 1935, file D, CRMO Archives.

⁴⁵ Louter, Craters of the Moon, 254-256. For McCarthy quote, see "Custodian's Monthly Report," July 3, 1940, CRMO Archives.

⁴⁶ Memorandum, Custodian Guy E. McCarthy to Regional Director, Region Four, August 29, 1942, RG 79, CRMO, box 269, file 630, NA-PSR.

⁴⁷ "Custodian's Monthly Report," June 1 and July 1, 1928.

⁴⁸ Albert T. Bicknell, "Report on Trail Construction," ca. 1934, file D 30, CRMO Archives; McCarty's observation is recorded in Assistant Regional Director B.F. Manbey, "Comments and Notes...Special Inspectional Trip of Craters of the Moon National Monument," June 12, 1940, history files, CRMO Archives.

⁴⁹ Louter, 268-270. See also Memorandum, EA. Davidson to Mark H. Astrup, October 3, 1938, RG 79, CCF, CRMO, file 600, NA-PSR, and Memorandum, Aubrey F. Houston to Regional Director, January 27, 1950, RG 79, CCF, CRMO, file 306-06, NA-PSR.

⁵⁰ Louter, 269-270; O.A. Tomlinson to Staff, July 21, 1943, RG 79, CCF CRMO, file 600, NA-PSR.

⁵¹ B.F. Manbey, "Notes and Comments."

⁵² Ibid.

⁵³ Houston to Regional Director, January 27, 1950.

⁵⁴ Memorandum, Superintendent Aubrey F. Houston to Regional Director, Region Four, May 22, 1950, RG 79 CCF, CRMO, file 201, NA-PSR. See also master plan drawing 2008A, maintenance fiche-files, National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Regional Office.

⁵⁵ Memorandum, Superintendent Aubrey F. Houston to Regional Director, April 19, 1951; Houston to Regional Director, February 20, 1952; Houston to Regional Director, November 20, 1952; file 204, RG 79, CCF, CRMO, file 600, NA-PSR. See also Louter, 272.

⁵⁶ Louter, 257-258.

⁵⁷ Ibid., 263.

⁵⁸ For visitation statistics, see Louter, 389. Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness (New York: Ballantine Books, 1969), 52.

⁵⁹ Because Mission 66 did not occur in the monument's "historic" development period, it is not fully recounted here, and is presented primarily from the perspective of developments. For a fuller treatment of the subject, see, for instance, Louter, 92-94, 272-276. Robert C. Zink to Aubrey F. Houston, August 25, 1956, file H, CRMO Archives.

⁶⁰ Louter, 258, 263.

⁶¹ Louter, 290-292. For an example of the decision to eliminate concessions, see Memorandum, Regional Director OA. Tomlinson to Superintendent Aubrey F. Houston, February 9, 1950, RG 79, CCF, CRMO, file 201, NA-PSR.

⁶² Louter, 274.

⁶³ "Custodian's Monthly Report," February 28, 1958.

⁶⁴ "Mission 66 Master Plan for Craters of the Moon National Monument," vol. I, chapter 3, 2, history files, CRMO Archives.