NPS-28: CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GUIDELINE

A. Introduction and Objectives

1. Introduction

Cultural landscapes are complex resources that range from large rural tracts covering several thousand acres to formal gardens of less than an acre. Natural features such as landforms, soils, and vegetation are not only part of the cultural landscape, they provide the framework within which it evolves. In the broadest sense, a cultural landscape is a reflection of human adaptation and use of natural resources and is often expressed in the way land is organized and divided, patterns of settlement, land use, systems of circulation, and the types of structures that are built. The character of a cultural landscape is defined both by physical materials, such as roads, buildings, walls, and vegetation, and by use reflecting cultural values and traditions.

Identifying the significant characteristics and features in a landscape and understanding them in relation to each other and to significant historic events, trends, and persons allows us to read the landscape as a cultural resource. In many cases, these features are dynamic and change over time. In many cases, too, historical significance may be ascribed to more than one period in a landscape's physical and cultural evolution.

Cultural landscape management involves identifying the type and degree of change that can occur while maintaining the historic character of the landscape. The identification and management of an appropriate level of change in a cultural landscape is closely related to its significance. In a landscape significant for its association with a specific style, individual, trend, or event, change may diminish its integrity and needs to be carefully monitored and controlled. In a landscape significant for the pattern of use that has evolved, physical change may be essential to the continuation of the use. In the latter case, the focus should be on perpetuating the use while maintaining the general character and feeling of the historic period(s), rather than on preserving a specific appearance.

2. Program Objectives

According to federal law and the NPS Management Policies, all cultural landscapes are to be managed as cultural resources, regardless of the type or level of significance. Cultural landscape management focuses on preserving a landscape's physical attributes, biotic systems, and use when that use contributes to its historical significance. Research, planning, and stewardship are the framework for the program. Research defines the features, values, and associations that make a landscape historically significant; planning outlines the issues and alternatives for long-term preservation; and stewardship involves such activities as condition assessment, maintenance, and training.

3. Cultural Landscape Categories

A cultural landscape is a geographic area, including both natural and cultural resources, associated with a historic event, activity, or person. The National Park Service recognizes four cultural landscape categories: historic designed landscapes, historic vernacular landscapes, historic sites, and ethnographic landscapes. These categories are helpful in distinguishing the values that make landscapes cultural resources and in determining how they should be treated, managed, and interpreted.

Historic designed landscapes are deliberate artistic creations reflecting recognized styles, such as the twelve-acre Meridian Hill Park in Washington, D.C., with its French and Italian Renaissance garden features. Designed landscapes also include those associated with important persons, trends, or events in the history of landscape architecture, such as Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site and the Blue Ridge Parkway.

Historic vernacular landscapes illustrate peoples' values and attitudes toward the land and reflect patterns of settlement, use, and development over time. Vernacular landscapes are found in large rural areas and small suburban and urban districts. Agricultural areas, fishing villages, mining districts, and homesteads are examples. The 17,400-acre rural landscape of Ebey's Landing National Historical Reserve represents a continuum of land use spanning more than a century. It has been continually reshaped by its inhabitants, yet the historic mix of farm, forest, village, and shoreline remains.

Historic sites are significant for their associations with important events, activities, and persons. Battlefields and presidential homes are prominent examples. At these areas, existing features and conditions are defined and interpreted primarily in terms of what happened there at particular times in the past.

Ethnographic landscapes are associated with contemporary groups and typically are used or valued in traditional ways. In the expansive Alaska parks, Native Alaskans hunt, fish, trap, and gather and imbue features with spiritual meanings. Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve illustrates the strong interrelationship between the dynamic natural system of the Delta region and several cultural groups through many generations. Numerous cultural centers maintain ties to distinctive, long-established groups with ethnic identities.

The four cultural landscape categories are not mutually exclusive. A landscape may be associated with a significant event, include designed or vernacular characteristics, and be significant to a specific cultural group. For example, Gettysburg National Military Park is a historic site primarily significant as the scene of the 1863 Civil War battle. The park also includes historic vernacular farm complexes that existed at the time of the battle and a number of designed components added later to commemorate the event, including a national cemetery, roads, and numerous monuments.

The cultural landscape program focuses on landscapes listed in or eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. Landscapes primarily significant for their ethnographic value are under the purview of the ethnography program; however, professionals from both programs may be involved in their documentation and treatment. (See Chapter 10 for guidance in managing ethnographic landscapes.)

B. Research

The primary purpose of research on cultural landscapes is to define the values and associations that make them historically significant. Research findings provide information for management decisions and actions extending from the development of long-term plans to compliance with preservation law and maintenance, assist in determining appropriate treatment, and support interpretive programs. The following standards apply:

• Research on a cultural landscape involving other resource types (archeological resources, structures, museum objects, ethnographic resources, natural resources) is conducted in consultation with specialists in their related disciplines, whose expertise is reflected in the reported findings and recommendations.

• Deficiencies in research on, and evaluation and registration of, a cultural landscape are identified in the park resources management plan and corrected as soon as possible.

1. Identification

Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act requires the NPS to identify and nominate to the National Register all resources under its jurisdiction that appear eligible, including cultural landscapes. Historical areas of the national park system are automatically listed in the National Register upon their establishment by law or executive order, but landscape resources within them that contribute to their historical significance still must be documented for the Register.

Research and preliminary field surveys are conducted to determine the existence of cultural landscapes. Identifying the significant characteristics and features of a landscape involves understanding its physical modifications and use, along with any ethnographic values and affiliations.

Except for ethnographic landscapes, the initial identification of cultural landscapes occurs in historic resource studies. An HRS must contain enough information about the developmental history, evolution, and existing conditions of a cultural landscape to evaluate its integrity and define appropriate National Register boundaries. Based on the research and field investigations conducted, a historical base map clearly depicting all cultural landscape resources and a National Register nomination are prepared. Addenda to existing HRSs are appropriate to address cultural landscapes that were not addressed initially.

2. Documentation, Evaluation, and Registration

a. Documentation

Documentation of cultural landscapes requires the use of primary and secondary sources; review and assessment of archeological records; and intensive field investigations to determine the extent and condition of historic and contemporary landscape features. Maps, plans, drawings, and photographs should be prepared as part of the baseline documentation.

b. Significance

Significance is determined by relating a landscape's history and existing characteristics and features to its historic context. The features, materials, patterns, and relationships that contribute to its historical significance must be present and have integrity. There may be more than a single area or period of historical significance for the landscape as a whole or for individual parts of it.

c. Integrity

The integrity of a cultural landscape is judged by the degree to which the characteristics that define its historical significance are present. Because important aspects such as vegetation and use change over time, integrity also depends on how evident the general character of the historic period is and the degree to which incompatible elements are reversible. With some vernacular and ethnographic landscapes, change itself is a significant factor and must be considered in assessing their integrity. In a designed landscape, a specific feature or area may survive in better condition than other equally important features or areas. In this case, an assessment of integrity should focus on the role of the individual feature in the overall historic design and the degree to which it contributes to the integrity of the design. In a similar way, as vegetation matures, the change in tree canopy, scale, and massing may affect the overall character of the landscape. It is important to consider how such changes affect the landscape as a whole and the degree to which they impact or obscure it.

d. National Register Nominations

Cultural landscapes are listed in the National Register when their significant cultural values have been documented and evaluated within appropriate thematic contexts and physical investigation determines that they retain integrity. Cultural landscapes are classified in the National Register as sites or districts or may be included as contributing elements of larger districts.

e. Cultural Landscapes Inventory

The Cultural Landscapes Inventory (CLI) is a computerized, evaluated inventory of all cultural landscapes in which the NPS has or plans to acquire any legal interest. Its purpose is to identify cultural landscapes in the national park system and provide information on their location, historical development, character-defining features, and management. The CLI assists park managers in planning, programming, and recording treatment and management decisions. CLI forms, including maps, drawings, and photographs, are maintained in the support offices and parks.

For more information on documentation, evaluation, and registration see National Register Bulletins 18, 30, 38, 40, 41, and 42 and the Cultural Landscapes Inventory Professional Procedures Guide.

3. Cultural Landscape Report

A cultural landscape report (CLR) is the primary guide to treatment and use of a cultural landscape. Based on the historic context provided in a historic resource study, a CLR documents the characteristics, features, materials, and qualities that make a landscape eligible for the National Register. It analyzes the landscape's development and evolution, modifications, materials, construction techniques, geographical context, and use in all periods, including those deemed not significant. Based on the analysis, it evaluates the significance of individual landscape characteristics and features in the context of the landscape as a whole. Typically interdisciplinary in character, it includes documentation, analysis, and evaluation of historical, architectural, archeological, ethnographic, horticultural, landscape architectural, engineering, and ecological data as appropriate. It makes recommendations for treatment consistent with the landscape's significance, condition, and planned use.

A CLR's scope and level of investigation will vary depending on management objectives. It may focus on an entire landscape or on individual features within it. Before any decision regarding treatment of a landscape, Part 1: Site History, Existing Conditions, Analysis, and Evaluation must be completed.

A CLR includes the following:

Introduction contains the management summary, historical overview and context, study boundaries, methodology and scope of the project, and a summary of findings.

Part 1: Site History, Existing Conditions, Analysis, and Evaluation contains three primary sections:

Site History includes a narrative history of the landscape describing, as appropriate, the historic context, design intent, primary design principles, key developments, physical relationships, patterns, features, and important individuals or events; and a historical base map/period plan for each significant historic period.

Existing Conditions includes a definition of site boundaries, an accurate site map, and a brief description of current resources, primary features, access, and site use.

Analysis and Evaluation includes an inventory and documentation of significant characteristics and features based on National Register criteria, a condition assessment of those features, and related site information.

Part 2: Treatment contains recommendations for treatment of the landscape based on the site history, existing conditions, and analysis; enabling legislation; applicable standards; and the proposed use as defined in planning documents. Recommendations are presented in a treatment plan and/or narrative guidelines. Cost estimates may be included.

Part 3: Record of Treatment documents the actual treatment with photographs, sketches, accounting data, and narratives outlining the course of work, conditions encountered, and materials used.

Appendices, Bibliography, and Index contain supplemental drawings, illustrations, maps, photographs, technical information, or other support documentation; a list of sources used in preparing the document; and references to material in the document, respectively.

The following standards apply:

• A CLR is prepared to minimize loss of significant characteristics, features, and materials when existing information about the physical history and condition of a cultural landscape is inadequate to address anticipated management objectives, when impending development alternatives could have adverse effects, or to record actual treatment.

• The CLR is prepared by qualified professionals based on appropriate methodologies and techniques for cultural landscape research, documentation, and evaluation.

• Archeological records, base maps, and techniques such as soil analysis are used for data on past features and conditions.

• Landscape, architectural, and archeological investigations supporting a CLR employ nondestructive methods to the maximum extent possible; they are prescribed and justified in a task directive that includes a research design and impact analysis.

• Confidential information on the location, nature, character, or ownership of archeological and ethnographic resources is identified and not made available to the public.

• National Register documentation is prepared or amended to address cultural landscape resources identified in a CLR after its preparation, if appropriate.

• All field notes, primary documents, original maps, drawings, photographs, and plant materials gathered or associated with the research for CLRs or special landscape projects are organized and preserved as archival material or museum objects in consultation with the park or support office curator.

• All information regarding the condition and assessment of character-defining landscape features is incorporated in the Inventory and Condition Assessment Program (ICAP).

C. Planning

1. Relationship to Park Plans

Cultural landscapes should be considered in all special resource studies for establishing new park areas. In existing parks, cultural landscapes often influence proposals in a park's statement for management, general management plan, development concept plan(s), resources management plan, and interpretive prospectus. Cultural landscape issues, such as historic land uses and the location and character of significant resources, should be considered in the development of all planning documents to avoid adverse effects on landscapes. Information in the Cultural Landscapes Inventory is generally adequate for a general management plan. A development concept plan should be coordinated with the preparation of a CLR and/or involve a historical landscape architect to ensure that development maintains the significant character and features of the landscape. The resources management plan should provide a format for documenting research and treatment requirements related to cultural landscapes as part of a comprehensive park cultural resource program. Appropriate siting of wayside exhibits and signs and techniques for cultural landscape interpretation should be addressed in the interpretive prospectus. In all park plans, the planning process itself is a fundamental tool for integrating information about and determining relationships among cultural landscapes and other resource types.

2. Decisions About Treatment

Information about the significance and integrity of cultural landscapes is required before making planning decisions about treatment and in many activities associated with park operations. For general management planning purposes, the historic resource study is the

primary document for determining significance and integrity. Before treatment of a landscape or its individual features, additional information regarding its significance, integrity, and condition is necessary. The CLR is the primary supporting document in this regard.

The following standards apply:

• The Cultural Landscapes Inventory or Part I of a CLR, as appropriate, is completed before any major park planning effort affecting a cultural landscape.

• Proposals for actions affecting a cultural landscape are consistent throughout all park planning documents.

• Development plans affecting a cultural landscape involve consultation among historical landscape architects and other resource specialists to assure appropriate protection of all resources.

3. Compliance

Because many parks were evaluated and documented for the National Register before cultural landscapes were recognized as significant resources, the National Register is an incomplete indicator of the presence of landscape resources. In Section 106 compliance, therefore, particular attention must be given to identifying and evaluating landscapes and their significant characteristics, features, and uses so that the effects of proposed undertakings on them can be adequately considered.

Actions affecting cultural landscapes, and thus requiring Section 106 compliance, fall into two categories:

Actions undertaken specifically for the management of a cultural landscape: The most common activity in this category that may affect the character or use of a cultural landscape is routine grounds maintenance, such as pruning and replacing vegetation, mowing grass, repairing fences, resetting and replacing paving materials in kind, and maintaining roads, paths, and trails. Although the work required to maintain a cultural landscape may not differ significantly from other park maintenance practices, many landscapes require special attention and treatment of various features. This especially is true in designed landscapes where the treatment, use, and maintenance of single features may profoundly affect the integrity of the whole.

Actions undertaken for other management purposes: Actions in this category can have significant adverse effects on a cultural landscape if not planned and carried out with consideration of its values. Examples include the construction of buildings and general work associated with site development; the addition or resurfacing of trails to meet accessibility standards; the addition of contemporary patios, fences, walkways, walls, utilities, and site furniture; and changes in use from open space to parking lot, visitor center, or maintenance yard. Although the impact of a single such action may be minor, the cumulative effect of successive actions may be adverse.

The following standards apply to actions affecting landscape resources:

• A landscape that has not been evaluated for National Register eligibility is given such evaluation before or during Section 106 consideration of an undertaking affecting it.

• Proposed actions are evaluated for their effects on individual landscape features and landscapes as a whole.

• Any ground disturbance in a cultural landscape requiring archeological clearance is reviewed in advance by a historical landscape architect in consultation with an archeologist.

4. Use

Use is an integral characteristic of a cultural landscape and impacts the landscape both materially and spatially. In vernacular and ethnographic landscapes, significant patterns of land use may have varied over several generations, while in a historic designed landscape land use activities may be fixed. Contemporary use of a cultural landscape is appropriate (1) if it does not adversely affect significant landscape features, and (2) if it either follows the historic use or does not impede public appreciation of it.

5. Funding and Staffing

Because the NPS has only recently recognized cultural landscapes as a major resource type, funding and staffing for landscape research, planning, and stewardship are relatively limited. Parks should systematically evaluate their funding and staffing needs for landscapes and identify them in park resources management plans.

D. Stewardship

1. General Treatment

This section contains management standards that provide a broad philosophical base for the treatment of cultural landscapes. Treatment is traditionally divided into four categories: preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction. The standards should be used in evaluating proposed projects and in planning and executing all work.

The following standards apply to all treatments:

• Land use activities, whether historic or introduced, do not impair archeological resources.

• Uses addressing programmatic needs or park facilities within a cultural landscape, such as visitor centers, parking, interpretive structures, housing, administrative facilities, maintenance yards, and storage areas, are carefully considered in the context of the significance of the landscape.

• Use is monitored and regulated to minimize both immediate and long-term damage.

• Contemporary facilities do not adversely impact the landscape's physical and visual character. New facilities are compatible with the historic character and material of the landscape.

• Contemporary structures to facilitate access, such as ramps, railings, signs, and curb cuts, are designed and located to minimize adverse impacts on the character and features of a cultural landscape.

• Access to a cultural landscape that is vulnerable to damage from human use is limited, monitored, or controlled.

• All treatment and use decisions reflect consideration of effects on both the natural and built features of a cultural landscape and the dynamics inherent in natural processes and continued use.

• Use of destructive techniques, such as archeological excavation, is limited to providing sufficient information for research, interpretation, and management needs.

• All work that may affect cultural landscapes is evaluated by a historical landscape architect and other professionals, as appropriate.

• All modification, repair, or replacement of materials and features is preceded by sufficient study and recording to protect research and interpretive values.

• New work, materials, and replacement features are identified, documented, or permanently marked in an unobtrusive manner to distinguish them from original work, materials, and features. The manner and location of identification is recorded using the Inventory and Condition Assessment Program (ICAP).

• A proposed treatment project is initiated by the appropriate programming document, including a scope of work and cost estimate from a CLR or ICAP. Such projects include preservation maintenance as well as major treatment. No treatment is undertaken without an approved CLR or work procedure specifying the work, and Section 106 compliance.

• A treatment project is directed by a historical landscape architect and performed by qualified technicians.

• Representative features salvaged from a cultural landscape are accessioned and cataloged, provided that they fall within the park's scope of collection statement.

• All changes made during treatment are graphically documented with drawings and photographs. Records of treatment are managed as archival materials by a curator or archivist within the park's museum collection.

• Work on historic structures, including modifications to improve drainage and access, does not harm the character-defining features of a cultural landscape.

a. Preservation

Preservation maintains the existing integrity and character of a cultural landscape by arresting or retarding deterioration caused by natural forces and normal use. It includes both maintenance and stabilization. Maintenance is a systematic activity mitigating wear and deterioration of a cultural landscape by protecting its condition. In light of the dynamic qualities of a landscape, maintenance is essential for the long-term preservation of individual features and the integrity of the entire landscape. Stabilization involves reestablishing the stability of an unsafe, damaged, or deteriorated cultural landscape while maintaining its existing character. The following standards based on the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties apply:

• A cultural landscape is used as it was historically, or is given a new or adaptive use that maximizes the retention of historic materials, features, spaces, and spatial relationships. Where a treatment and use have not been identified, a landscape is protected and, if necessary, stabilized until additional work may be undertaken.

• The historic character of a cultural landscape is retained and preserved. The replacement or removal of intact or repairable historic materials or alteration of features, spaces, and spatial relationships that characterize a landscape is avoided.

• Each cultural landscape is recognized as a physical record of its time, place, and use. Work needed to stabilize, consolidate, and conserve historic materials and features is physically and visually compatible, identifiable upon close inspection, and properly documented for future research.

• Changes to a cultural landscape that have acquired historical significance in their own right are retained and preserved.

• Historic materials, features, finishes, and construction techniques or examples of craftsmanship that characterize a cultural landscape are preserved.

• The existing condition of historic features is evaluated to determine the appropriate level of intervention needed. Where the severity of deterioration requires repair or limited replacement of a historic feature, the new work matches the old in design, color, texture, and where possible, materials. Repair or replacement of features is substantiated by archeological, documentary, or physical evidence.

• Chemical or physical treatments that cause damage to historic materials are not used.

• Archeological and structural resources are protected and preserved in place. If such resources must be disturbed, mitigation measures are undertaken including recovery, curation, and documentation.

The following additional standards apply:

• Stabilization detracts as little as possible from a cultural landscape's appearance and significance. Reinforcement is concealed wherever possible so as not to intrude upon or detract from the aesthetic, historical, or archeological quality of the landscape, except where concealment would result in the alteration or destruction of historically or archeologically significant features, materials, or physical or visual relationships. Accurate documentation of stabilization procedures is kept and made available for future needs.

• Maintenance is executed by qualified technicians in accordance with approved work procedures. Where such procedures are nonexistent or incomplete, a historical landscape architect or appropriate cultural resource specialist provides technical guidance.

• All features of the cultural landscape are inspected on a scheduled basis and information about their condition is entered into ICAP.

b. Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation improves the utility or function of a cultural landscape, through repair or alteration, to make possible an efficient compatible use while preserving those portions or features that are important in defining its significance. The following standards based on the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties apply:

• A cultural landscape is used as it was historically or is given a new or adaptive use that maximizes the retention of historic materials, features, spaces, and spatial relationships.

• The historic character of a cultural landscape is retained and preserved. The replacement or removal of intact or repairable historic materials or alteration of features, spaces, and spatial relationships that characterize a landscape is avoided.

• Each cultural landscape is recognized as a physical record of its time, place, and use. Changes that create a false sense of historical development, such as adding conjectural features from other landscapes, are not undertaken. Work needed to stabilize, consolidate, and conserve historic materials and features is physically and visually compatible, identifiable upon close inspection, and properly documented for future research.

• Changes to a cultural landscape that have acquired historical significance in their own right are retained and preserved.

• Historic materials, features, finishes, and construction techniques or examples of craftsmanship that characterize a cultural landscape are preserved.

• Deteriorated historic features are repaired rather than replaced. Where the severity of deterioration requires repair or replacement of a historic feature, the new feature matches the old in design, color, texture, and, where possible, materials. Repair or replacement of missing features is substantiated by archeological, documentary, or physical evidence.

• Chemical or physical treatments that cause damage to historic materials are not used.

• Archeological and structural resources are protected and preserved in place. If such resources must be disturbed, mitigation measures are undertaken including recovery, curation, and documentation.

• Additions, alterations, or related new construction do not destroy historic materials, features, and spatial relationships that characterize the cultural landscape. New work is differentiated from the old and is compatible with the historic materials, features, size, scale and proportion, and massing of the landscape.

• Additions and adjacent or related new construction are undertaken in such a manner that if removed in the future, the essential form and integrity of the cultural landscape would be unimpaired.

c. Restoration

Restoration accurately depicts the form, features, and character of a cultural landscape as it appeared at a specific period or as intended by its original constructed design. It may involve the reconstruction of missing historic features and selective removal of later features, some having cultural value in themselves. The following standards based on the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties apply:

• A cultural landscape is used as it was historically or given a new or adaptive use that interprets the landscape and its restoration period.

• Materials and features from the restoration period are retained and preserved. The removal of materials or alteration of features, spaces, and spatial relationships that characterize the period is not undertaken.

• Each cultural landscape is recognized as a physical record of its time, place, and use. Changes that create a false sense of historical development, such as adding conjectural features from other landscapes, are not undertaken. Work needed to stabilize, consolidate, and conserve materials and features from the restoration period is physically and visually compatible, identifiable upon close inspection, and properly documented for future research.

• Materials, features, finishes, spaces, and spatial relationships that characterize other historic periods are documented prior to their alteration or removal.

• Historic materials, features, finishes, and construction techniques or examples of craftsmanship that characterize the restoration period are preserved.

• Deteriorated features from the restoration period are repaired rather than replaced. Where the severity of deterioration requires replacement of a historic feature, the new feature matches the old in design, color, texture and, where possible, materials.

• Replacement of missing features from the restoration period is substantiated by archeological, documentary, or physical evidence. A false sense of history is not created by adding conjectural features or features from other landscapes, or by combining features that never existed together historically.

• Chemical or physical treatments that cause damage to historic materials are not used.

• Archeological and structural resources are protected and preserved in place. If such resources must be disturbed, mitigation measures are undertaken including recovery, curation, and documentation.

• Designs that were never executed historically are not constructed.

The following additional standards apply:

• Archeological, documentary, or physical evidence is sufficient to permit accurate restoration with minimal conjecture.

• Restoration is essential to public understanding of the cultural associations of a park.

• Reinforcements required for stability of existing support systems and protective or code-required features (electrical, security, fire protection, handicapped accessibility, etc.) are concealed whenever possible so as not to intrude upon or detract from a cultural landscape's aesthetic and historical qualities, except where concealment would result in the alteration or destruction of historically significant features, materials, or physical or visual relationships.

d. Reconstruction

Reconstruction entails depicting the form, features, and details of a non-surviving cultural landscape, or any part thereof, as it appeared at a specific period or as intended by its original constructed design. Reconstruction of an entire landscape is always a last-resort measure for addressing a management objective and will be undertaken only upon specific written approval of the director after policy review in the Washington office. The following standards based on the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties apply:

• Archeological, documentary, or physical evidence is available to permit accurate reconstruction with minimal conjecture, and such reconstruction is essential to public understanding of the cultural associations of a park established for that purpose.

• Reconstruction of a cultural landscape in its historic location is preceded by a thorough archeological investigation to identify and evaluate those features and artifacts which are essential to an accurate reconstruction. Mitigation measures are undertaken including recovery, curation, and documentation.

• Reconstruction includes measures to preserve any remaining historic material, features, and spatial relationships.

• Reconstruction is based on the accurate duplication of historic features substantiated by archeological, documentary, or physical evidence, rather than on conjectural designs or the availability of different features from other landscapes. A reconstructed cultural landscape re-creates the appearance of the non-surviving landscape in design, color, texture, and, where possible, materials.

• A reconstruction is clearly identified as a contemporary re-creation.

• Designs that were never executed historically are not constructed.

The following additional standards apply:

• The reconstructed cultural landscape is full-scale and on the original site.

• The reconstruction does not simulate a damaged or ruined cultural landscape or constitute a general representation of a "typical" landscape, e.g., kitchen garden, period garden, orchard, that never existed historically.

2. Biotic Systems Treatment

This section contains standards addressing the special issues related to the treatment of biotic systems. Virtually all cultural landscapes evolve from and are dependent on natural resources. In many ways, the dynamic qualities inherent in natural systems are what differentiate cultural landscapes from other cultural resources. Plant and animal communities associated with human settlement and use are considered biotic cultural resources and can reflect social, functional, economic, ornamental, or traditional uses of the land. Within a cultural landscape, biotic cultural resources are recognized either as a system or as individual specimen features that contribute to the landscape's significance. For example, the preservation of a single tree in a historic designed landscape may be critical to the integrity of the overall design. A herd of a historic variety of livestock may have similar significance in a historic vernacular landscape. In contrast, an entire woodland may have significance, so that preserving the ecological processes of the system rather than individual trees or animals becomes paramount. In all cases, consultation with natural resource professionals is necessary to determine appropriate protection and management strategies for biotic cultural resources.

General standards for managing vegetation in a cultural landscape are followed by specific standards and guidance for managing specimen plants, vegetation systems, pests, and endangered species. (Additional guidance for management of biotic resources is found in the Natural Resources Management Guideline [NPS-77].)

• Existing vegetation, both native and introduced (exotic), that contributes to the historic character of a cultural landscape or is important to a traditional user group is identified, maintained, and perpetuated, as appropriate. Special consideration is given to introduced species because they may be important clues to the history of the landscape, they may include plant varieties that are rare or endangered, or they may be mistaken as "pests" and removed.

• Maintenance methods are used that promote the health and vigor of the vegetation and respect either the natural habit of growth or the trained form of the plant material related to the historic character of a cultural landscape.

• Treatment of vegetation is based on an understanding of the functional, design, and associative values of the plant material in a cultural landscape.

a. Specimen Plant Management

Specimens include both individual plants and aggregations of plants that have distinct, unique, or noteworthy characteristics in a landscape such as individual trees and shrubs, ornamental plantings, perennial borders, gardens, and orchards. In some cultural landscapes, it is important that specific types of plant materials and the location, shape, and form of these materials be retained and perpetuated based on their historic character and significant values. The primary considerations in managing specimen plants are to ensure their health and vigor and, if appropriate, provide for propagation of the next generation. Perpetuation of historic genetic material is especially important when cultivars are rare or unavailable. The following standards apply:

• Extant historic vegetation considered significant as a specimen in a cultural landscape is identified and maintained.

• Perpetuation of historic genetic material, through propagation or other means, is undertaken when plants are rare or have important historical associations or when replacements are unavailable.

• Significant vegetation that causes damage to or threatens other resources is controlled rather than removed whenever feasible.

• Replacement of plant material matches the original in type, location, form, and shape.

• Substitution of plant material is considered in response to changes in growing conditions, susceptibility to disease and pests, or the unavailability of original material. Substitute material matches the historic material in visual, functional, and horticultural characteristics. Varieties resistant to disease, pests, and pollution are used where they meet these standards. Accurate records of substitutions are kept.

• Removal of vegetation that threatens health and safety is preceded by adequate documentation and followed by replacement if appropriate.

b. Vegetation Systems Management

In managing vegetation systems, the overall pattern of vegetation is the primary concern. Elements of pattern include height and general scale and the size and juxtaposition of areas with different vegetation. Exact configurations and plant species can vary as long as the overall pattern is retained. Forests, woodlands, woodlots, and most agricultural lands are examples of vegetation systems. The following standards apply:

• The need for succession through several stages to retain healthy communities is considered in managing forests, woodlands, and woodlots. On agricultural lands, the value of crop rotation, fallow periods, and succession into woodland is considered.

• Consideration is given to the effects of vegetation on the nutrient regime of water bodies and the stability of banks. Erosion is minimized using vegetation or other materials compatible with the historic character of the cultural landscape.

• Vegetation management activities associated with ground disturbance are monitored to ensure the protection of archeological and other cultural resources, such as the remains of roads and traces, fence lines, hedgerows, earthworks, subsurface features, and other structures.

• Areas that meet the definition of wetland generally are excluded from agricultural use. If agricultural use is allowed in wetland areas, appropriate measures are taken to monitor impacts.

• Historic exotic species are monitored and controlled to avoid spreading and disrupting desirable adjacent natural plant communities and associations. Historically inappropriate exotic species are not introduced.

c. Pest Management

A pest is defined as a population of organisms that interferes with the accomplishment of management objectives. Integrated pest management (IPM) involves taking steps to prevent pest problems, monitoring to detect when a pest population reaches a predetermined threshold level considered unacceptable, and using a combination of approaches to control pests in a manner that will be most effective, safest to people, and most environmentally sound. (For additional information on IPM see the Natural Resource Management Guideline.) The following standards apply:

• Landscape management practices that contribute to pest problems are identified and alternate practices that maintain the historic character of a cultural landscape are considered.

• When appropriate, pest-resistant varieties are used to minimize pest-caused damage to features of a cultural landscape and the need for pesticides.

• All use of biocides complies with the standards and procedures in the Natural Resources Management Guideline.

d. Endangered Species

Federally or state-listed threatened or endangered species must receive utmost protection. They may be considered "specimens" within the cultural landscape system. (For additional information on endangered species, see the Natural Resources Management Guideline.)

3. Inventory and Condition Assessment Program (ICAP)

ICAP, a module of the Maintenance Management (MM) program, assists in planning for the maintenance and major treatment of cultural landscapes through an inventory and condition assessment of their features. ICAP generates annual inspection forms and other reports, develops a preventive maintenance program, and uploads data into the park MM program.

The Historic Property Preservation Database (HPPD) is a computerized database containing technical information on the treatment of cultural landscapes and historic and prehistoric structures. It is used to develop work procedures for ICAP and MM, including skill requirements, work consideration, material and equipment selection, and work instructions. The HPPD also provides information for more intensive treatments such as rehabilitation and restoration.

(For additional information see the ICAP Reference Manual and Computer User Manual.)

4. Partnerships

NPS fee ownership and occupancy of a cultural landscape provides park managers the greatest flexibility. However, when the integrity of a landscape can be maintained and long-term management objectives realized with the property held or occupied by others, acquisition of less-than-fee interests or special use agreements should be considered. (For further information see Director's Order 27, "Historic Property Leases and Exchanges," the Special Park Uses Guideline [NPS-53], and the Park Planning Guideline [NPS-2].) The following standards apply to the acquisition and control of lands containing or contributing to a cultural landscape:

a. Acquisition of Lands and Interests

• The fee-simple acquisition of lands is undertaken where necessary to ensure the protection of significant features and uses associated with a cultural landscape.

• The use of easements to protect a cultural landscape takes into account the economic viability of continuing their historic uses and the ability and desire of owners to continue those uses.

• Easements on agricultural lands address the protection of significant small-scale features within a cultural landscape, such as historic roads and paths, hedgerows, fences, and specimen trees. The ability of owners to preserve and maintain such features over time is evaluated to ensure compliance.

b. Leases and Agreements

• Agricultural leases and agreements are managed to protect significant features of a cultural landscape, such as topography, field size, fences, walls, ditches, vegetation, wetlands, earthworks, structures, and vistas.

• Archeological surveys are undertaken as necessary to ensure that modern farming techniques will not destroy subsurface resources.

• Modifications prompted by modern farm machinery and practices, including the alteration of historic buildings, lanes, roads, fences, and gates and the introduction of nonhistoric crops, field patterns, and pruning techniques, are minimized to protect significant landscape features and patterns.

• Landscape support facilities resulting from leases and agreements, such as parking areas and signs, are not allowed to diminish the integrity of a cultural landscape.

c. Adjacent Lands

• Adjacent lands significant to the physical, functional, or symbolic cultural landscape context of the park are identified.

• Direct impacts of adjacent land development on a park cultural landscape are identified, such as removal of woodlands; development and/or reforestation of traditionally "open" lands; alteration of historically significant field patterns; alteration of topography, streams, and watercourses impacting existing natural systems; and alteration of historic vistas.

• Indirect impacts of adjacent land development on a park cultural landscape are identified, such as increased commuter traffic on park roads, storm water runoff or restricted overland flow impacting park vegetation or generating erosion and pollution, increased pressure for the park to serve local recreational needs, higher taxes or land values rendering local agriculture unprofitable, and use of pesticides and herbicides that may negatively impact natural resources.

• Potential impacts of adjacent land development on the cultural landscape context of parks are addressed through park involvement in the planning processes of local jurisdictions.

5. Destruction or Neglect of Cultural Landscapes

No cultural landscape listed in or potentially eligible for the National Register or listed in the Cultural Landscapes Inventory will be destroyed or deliberately neglected without review by cultural resource specialists and approval by the regional director. If a potentially eligible landscape has not been evaluated for the National Register, the state historic preservation officer will be consulted. If it is determined, in consultation with the SHPO, that the landscape does not meet the National Register criteria, destruction or deliberate neglect may occur. In some cases, neglect is the appropriate action to protect archeological resources and the natural resources and processes that may have cultural or ethnographic value.

Before a landscape eligible for the National Register is destroyed or allowed to deteriorate, it must be documented in accordance with Section 110(b) of the National Historic Preservation Act, and the documentation must be accepted by the Chief, HABS/HAER Program.

6. Special Issues

a. Cemeteries

Cemeteries in parks may have significance as repositories of the remains of individuals having local, state, or national importance; as places associated with historic events or figures not interred therein (e.g., Gettysburg National Cemetery for its association with Abraham Lincoln); or because of individual structures of high artistic or architectural merit. In addition, some cemeteries are significant cultural landscapes because they represent a type of burial ground (family), because they typify a broad social movement or pattern (the slave burial ground), or because in plan and execution they were seminal designs (early examples of the "rural" cemetery movement) or works of important designers. The following standards address treatment of park cemeteries, including those in private ownership.

• The cemetery is managed in a manner that recognizes its significance and preserves and interprets the cultural landscape as a whole. The character-defining features of the cemetery, such as general organization and layout, plant materials, roads and pathways, fences, and the placement of statuary and grave markers, are documented and incorporated in a maintenance program.

• Maintenance activities do not impair the significant character and individual features of the cultural landscape. Mowing, weed whipping, and use of commercial herbicides immediately next to grave markers are avoided.

• The repair, cleaning, consolidation, and resetting of grave markers is supervised by a historical architect and other professionals, as appropriate.

• New landscape features are compatible with the original design and character of the cemetery and do not negatively impact the significant built or natural features (e.g., new trees are planted so that roots will not later damage or disrupt grave markers and curbing).

(For further information see the National Cemeteries Guideline [NPS-61].)

b. Circulation Systems

In many parks, the roads, parkways, and trails are significant historic circulation systems. A circulation system may constitute a cultural landscape in and of itself, such as Going-to-the-Sun Road in Glacier National Park, or it may be an integral feature of a cultural landscape. Key features of circulation systems, such as topography, bridges, headwalls, retaining walls, culverts, and views, are important to defining the overall character of the landscape. The following standards apply:

• Historically significant circulation systems and their associated features are not adversely impacted to accommodate recreational vehicles, buses, commuter traffic, or other contemporary uses.

• Plans for the treatment of structural features that are parts of historically significant circulation systems are developed in consultation with a historical architect.

• Historic circulation systems are rehabilitated to accommodate health and safety codes in ways that minimize impact on character-defining features.

c. Earthworks

Earthworks are linear or geometric landscape structures built for military, industrial, agricultural, ceremonial, or aesthetic purposes. They include fortifications, water impoundment and control structures, early field boundary ditches and berms, burial mounds, grass garden ramps, and raised beds. Because of their composition, earthworks are constantly being impacted by a variety of natural forces. The long-term preservation of earthworks commonly requires an appropriate vegetative cover that may differ from the historic material. The following standards apply:

• Earthworks are maintained with a healthy, vigorous vegetation cover to minimize erosion and loss of integrity.

• Circulation and visitor use facilities are located and controlled to avoid impacting earthworks.

(For more information see the Earthworks Landscape Management Manual and Earthworks Landscape Management Field Handbook [full citations in Appendix K].)

d. Monuments, Memorials, and Landscape Remnants

Monuments and memorials are defined as structures and included in the List of Classified Structures. They are often significant components of cultural landscapes and may be cultural landscapes in their own right. The siting, orientation, plantings, paving materials, roads, and pathways designed as an integral part of a monument or memorial should be considered part of the feature and managed as a whole. In addition, remnant objects may have cultural value as landscape features. Their treatment should be developed in collaboration with a historical architect or curator.

At battlefields and other military sites, artillery pieces need to be evaluated in terms of their relationship to the historic landscape. A piece of ordnance may be part of a planned memorial design and significant as a structural feature of the landscape or it may be strictly an interpretive device without site-specific significance. If the ordnance is fixed in position it is defined as a structure; if it is not fixed it is defined as a museum object and may be part of the museum collection. In both cases, the relocation of artillery pieces should be evaluated based on their significance in the context of the overall design of the historic landscape.