Cultural landscapes can range from thousands of acres of rural tracts
of land to a small homestead with a front yard of less than one acre. Like
historic buildings and districts, these special places reveal aspects of
our country's origins and development through their form and features and
the ways they were used. Cultural landscapes also reveal much about our
evolving relationship withthe natural world.
 Patterns on the land have been preserved through the continuation of traditional uses, such as the grape fields at the Sterling Vineyards in Calistoga, California. Photo: NPS files. |
A cultural landscape is defined as "a geographic area,including
both cultural and natural resources and the wildlife or domestic animals
therein, associated with a historic event, activity, or person or exhibiting
other cultural or aesthetic values." There are four general types of
cultural landscapes, not mutually exclusive: historic sites, historic
designed landscapes, historic vernacular landscapes, and ethnographic landscapes.
These are defined below.
Historic landscapes include residential gardens and community
parks, scenic highways, rural communities, institutional grounds, cemeteries, battlefields and zoological gardens. They are composed of a number of character-defining features which, individually or collectively contribute to the landscape's
physical appearance as they have evolved over time. In addition to vegetation and
topography, cultural landscapes may include water features, such as ponds,
streams, and fountains; circulation features, such as roads, paths, steps,
and walls; buildings; and furnishings, including fences, benches, lights
and sculptural objects.
Most historic properties have a cultural landscape component that is
integral to the significance of the resource. Imagine a residential district
without sidewalks, lawns and trees or a plantation with buildings but no
adjacent lands. A historic property consistsof all its cultural resources--landscapes, buildings, archeological sites and collections. In some cultural
landscapes, there may be a total absence of buildings.
This Preservation Brief provides preservation professionals, cultural resource
managers, and historic property owners a step-by-step process for preserving
historic designed and vernacular landscapes, two types of cultural landscapes.
While this process is ideally applied to an entire landscape, it can address
a single feature, such as a perennial garden, family burial plot, or a sentinel oak
in an open meadow. This Brief provides a framework and guidance for undertaking
projects to ensure a successful balance between historic preservation and
change.
DEFINITIONS
Historic Designed Landscape--a landscape that was consciously
designed or laid out by a landscape architect, master gardener, architect,
or horticulturist according to design principles,or an amateur gardener
working in a recognized style or tradition. The landscape may be associated
with a significant person(s), trend, or event in landscape architecture;
or illustrate an important development in the theory and practice of landscape
architecture. Aesthetic values play a significant role in designed landscapes. Examples
include parks, campuses, and estates.
Historic Vernacular Landscape--a landscape that evolved
through use by the people whose activities or occupancy shaped that landscape.
Through social or cultural attitudes ofan individual, family or a community,
the landscape reflects the physical, biological, and cultural character
of those everyday lives. Function plays a significant role in vernacular
landscapes. They can be a single property such as a farm or a collection
of properties such as a district of historic farms along a river valley.
Examples include rural villages, industrial complexes, and agricultural
landscapes.
Historic Site--a landscape significant for its association
with a historic event, activity, or person. Examples include battlefields
and president's house properties.
Ethnographic Landscape--a landscape containing a variety
of natural and cultural resources that associated people define as heritage
resources. Examples are contemporary settlements, religious sacred sites
and massive geological structures. Small plant communities, animals, subsistence
and ceremonial grounds are often components.
Nearly all designed and vernacular landscapes evolve from, or are often
dependent on, natural resources. It is these interconnected systems of land,
air and water, vegetation and wildlife which have dynamic qualities that
differentiate cultural landscapes from other cultural resources, such as
historic structures. Thus, their documentation, treatment, and ongoing management
require a comprehensive, multi-disciplinary approach.
 The "Boot Fence," near D.H. Lawrence Ranch, Questa, California, is an example of a character-defining landscape feature. Photo: Courtesy, Cheryl Wagner. |
Today, those involved in preservation planning and management of cultural
landscapes represent a broad array of academic backgrounds,training, and
related project experience. Professionals may have expertise in landscape
architecture, history, landscape archeology, forestry, agriculture, horticulture,
pomology, pollen analysis, planning, architecture, engineering (civil, structural,
mechanical, traffic), cultural geography, wildlife, ecology, ethnography, interpretation,
material and object conservation, landscape maintenanceand management.
Historians and historic preservation professionals can bring expertise in
the history of the landscape, architecture, art, industry, agriculture,
society and other subjects. Landscape preservation teams, including on-site
management teams and independent consultants, are often directed by a landscape
architect with specific expertise in landscape preservation. It is highly
recommended that disciplines relevant to the landscapes' inherent features be
represented as well.
 Another example of a very different landscape feature is this tree planting detail for Jefferson Memorial Park, St. Louis, Missouri. Photo: Courtesy, Dan Kiley. |
Additional guidance may be obtained from State Historic Preservation Offices,
local preservation commissions, the National Park Service, local and state
park agencies, national and state chapters ofthe American Society of Landscape
Architects, the Alliance for Historic Landscape Preservation, the National
Association of Olmsted Parks, and the Catalog of Landscape Records in the
United States at Wave Hill, among others.
A range of issues may need to be addressed when considering how a particular
cultural landscape should be treated. This may include the in-kind replacement
of declining vegetation, reproduction of furnishings, rehabilitation of
structures, accessibility provisions for people with disabilities, or the
treatment of industrial properties that are rehabilitated for new uses.
Preservation
Planning for Cultural Landscapes
Careful planning prior to undertaking work can help prevent irrevocable damage
to a cultural landscape. Professional techniques for identifying, documenting,
evaluating and preserving cultural landscapes have advanced during the past
25 years and are continually being refined. Preservation planning generally
involves the following steps: historical research; inventory and documentation
of existing conditions; site analysis and evaluation of integrity and significance;
development of a cultural landscape preservation approach and treatment
plan; development of a cultural landscape management plan and management philosophy;
the development of a strategy for ongoing maintenance; and preparation of
a record of treatment and future research recommendations.
The steps in this process are not independent of each other, nor are
they always sequential. In fact, information gathered in one step may lead
to a re-examination or refinement of previous steps. For example, field
inventory and historical research are likely to occur simultaneously, and
may reveal unnoticed cultural resources that should be protected.
The treatment and management of cultural landscape should also be considered
in concert with the management of an entire historic property. As a result,
many other studies may be relevant. They include management plans, interpretive
plans, exhibit design, historic structures reports, and other.
These steps can result in several products including a Cultural Landscape
Report (also known as a Historic Landscape Report), statements for management,
interpretive guide, maintenance guideand maintenance records.
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE REPORTS
A Cultural Landscape Report (CLR) is the primary report that documents the
history, significance and treatment of a cultural landscape. A CLR evaluates
the history and integrity of the landscape including any changes to its
geographical context, features, materials,and use.
CLWs are often prepared when a change (e.g. a new visitor's center or
parking area to a landscape) is proposed. In such instances, a CLR can be
a useful tool to protect the landscape's character-defining features from
undue wear, alteration or loss. A CLR can provide managers, curators and
others with information needed to make management decisions.
A CLR will often yield new information about a landscape's historic significance
and integrity, even for those already listed on theNational Register. Where
appropriate, National Register files should be amended to reflect the new
findings.
Historical Research
Research is essential before undertaking any treatment. Findings will
help identify a landscape's historic period(s) of ownership, occupancy and
development, and bring greater understanding of the associations and characteristics
that make the landscape or history significant. Research findings provide
a foundation to make educated decisions for work, and can also facilitate
ongoing maintenance and management operations, interpretation and eventual compliance
requirements.
A variety of primary and secondary sources may be consulted. Primary archival
sources can include historic plans, surveys, plats, tax maps, atlases, U.
S. Geological Survey maps, soil profiles, aerial photographs, photographs,
stereoscopic views, glass lantern slides, postcards, engravings, paintings,
newspapers, journals, construction drawings, specifications, plant lists,
nursery catalogs, household records, account books and personal correspondence.
Secondary sources include monographs, published histories, theses, National Register
forms, survey data, local preservation plans, state contexts and scholarly
articles.
Contemporary documentary resources should also be consulted. This may
include recent studies, plans, surveys, aerial and infrared photographs,
Soil Conservation Service soil maps, inventories, investigations and interviews.
Oral histories of residents, managers,and maintenance personnel with a
long tenure or historical association can be valuable sources of information
about changes to a landscape over many years. For
properties listed in the National Register, nomination forms should be consulted.
Preparing Period Plans
In the case of designed landscapes, even though a historic design plan
exists, it does not necessarily mean that it was realized fully, or even
in part. Based on a review of the archival resources outlined above, and
the extant landscape today, an as-built period plan may be delineated.
For all successive tenures of ownership, occupancy and landscape change,
period plans should be generated. Period
plans can document to the greatest extent possible the historic appearance
during a particular period of ownership, occupancy, or development. Period
plans should be based on primary archival sources and should avoid conjecture. Features
that are based on secondary or less accurate sources should be graphically
differentiated. Ideally, all referenced archival sources should be annotated
and footnoted directly on period plans.
Where historical data is missing, period plans should reflect any gaps
in the CLR narrative text and these limitations consideredin future treatment
decisions.
Inventorying and Documenting Existing Conditions
Both physical evidence in the landscape and historic documentation guide
the historic preservation plan and treatments. To document existing conditions,
intensive field investigation and reconnaissance should be conducted at
the same time that documentary researchis being gathered. Information should
be exchanged among preservation professionals, historians, technicians,
local residents, managers and visitors.
 Understanding the geographic context should be part of the inventory process. This aerial photograph at Rancho Los Alamitos, Long Beach, CA, was taken in 1936. (See, below.) Photo: Rancho Los Alamitos Foundation. |
To assist in the survey process, National Register Bulletins have been
published by the National Park Service to aid in identifying,nominating
and evaluating designed and rural historic landscapes. Additionally, Bulletins
are available for specific landscape types such as battlefields, mining
sites, and cemeteries.
Although there are several ways to inventory and document a landscape,the
goal is to create a baseline from a detailed record of the landscape and
its features as they exist at the present (considering seasonal variations).
Each landscape inventory should address issues of boundary delineation,
documentation methodologies and techniques, the limitations of the inventory,
and the scope of inventory efforts.
 This present-day view of Rancho Los Alamitos shows present-day encroachments and adjacent developments that will affect the future treatment of visual and spatial relationships. Photo: Rancho Los Alamitos Foundation. |
These are most often influenced by the
timetable, budget, project scope, and the purpose of the inventory and,
depending on the physical qualities of the property, its scale, detail,
and the inter-relationship between natural and cultural resources. For example,
inventory objectives to develop a treatment plan may differ considerably compared
to those needed to develop an ongoing maintenance plan. Once the criteria
for a landscape inventory are developed and tested, the methodology should
be explained.
Preparing Existing Condition Plans
Inventory and documentation may be recorded in plans, sections, photographs,
aerial photographs, axonometric perspectives, narratives, video-or any combination
of techniques. Existing conditions should generally be documented to scale,
drawn by hand or generated by computer. The scale of the drawings is often
determined by the size and complexity of the landscape. Some landscapes
may require documentation at more than one scale. For example, a large estate may
be documented at a small scale to depict its spatial and visual relationships,
while the discrete area around an estate mansionmay require a larger scale
to illustrate individual plant materials, pavement patterns and other details.
The same may apply to an entire rural historic district and a fenced
vegetable garden contained within.
When landscapes are documented in photographs, registration points
can be set to indicate the precise location and orientation of features.
Registration points should correspond to significant forms, features and
spatial relationships within the landscape and
its surrounds. The points may
also correspond to historic views to illustrate the change in the landscape
todate. These locations may also be used as a management tool todocument
the landscape's evolution, and to ensure that its character-defining features
are preserved over time through informed maintenance operations and later
treatment and management decisions.
All features that contribute to the landscape's historic character should
be recorded. These include the physical features described above (e.g.
topography, circulation), and the visual and spatial relationships that
are character defining. The identification of existing plants, should be
specific, including genus, species, common name, age (if known) and size.
The woody, and if appropriate, herbaceous plant material should be accurately
located on the existing conditions map. To ensure full representation of
successional herbaceous plants, care should be taken to document the landscape in
different seasons, if possible.
Treating living plant materials as a curatorial collection has also been
undertaken at some cultural landscapes. This process, either done manually
or by computer, can track the condition and maintenance operations on individual
plants. Some sites, suchas the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic
Site, in Brookline, Massachusetts have developed a field investigation numbering
system to track all woody plants. Due to concern for
the preservation of genetic diversity and the need to replace significant
plant materials, a number of properties are beginning to propagate historically
important rare plants that are no longer commercially available, unique,
or possess significant historic associations. Such herbarium collections
become a part of a site's natural history collection.
Once the research and the documentation of existing conditions have been
completed, a foundation is in place to analyze the landscape's continuity
and change, determine its significance, assess its integrity, and place
it within the historic context of similar landscapes.
READING THE LANDSCAPE
A noted geographer, Pierce Lewis, stated, "The attempt to derive meaning from landscapes
possesses overwhelming virtue. It keeps us constantly alert to the world
around us, demanding that we pay attention not just to some of the things
around us but to all of them--the whole visible world in all of its rich,
glorious, messy, confusing, ugly, and beautiful complexity."
Landscapes can be read on many levels--landscape as nature, habitat, artifact, system, problem, wealth, ideology, history, place and aesthetic. When developing a strategy to document a cultural landscape, it is important to attempt to read the landscape in its context of place and time.
Reading the landscape, like engaging in archival research, requires a
knowledge of the resource and subject area as well as a willingness to be
skeptical. As with archival research, it may involve serendipitous discoveries. Evidence gained from reading the landscape may confirm or contradict other findings and may encourage the observer and the historian to re-visit both
primary and secondary sources with a fresh outlook. Landscape investigation
may also stimulate other forms of research and survey, such as oral histories
or archeological investigations, to supplement what appeared on-site.
There are many ways to read a landscape-whatever approach is taken should
provide a broad overview. This may be achieved by combining on-the-ground
observations with a bird's-eye perspective. To begin this process, aerial
photographs should be reviewed to gain an orientation to the landscape and
its setting. Aerial photographs come in different sizes and scales, and
can thus portray different levels of detail in the landscape. Aerial photographs
taken at a high altitude, for example, may help to reveal remnant field patterns
or traces of an abandoned circulation system; or, portions of axial relationships
that were part of the original design, since obscured by encroaching woodland
areas. Low altitude aerial photographs can point out individual features
such as the arrangement of shrub and herbaceous borders, and the exact locations
of furnishings, lighting, and fence alignments. This knowledge can prove
beneficial before an on-site visit.
Aerial photographs provide clues that can help orient the viewer to the
landscape. The next step may be to view the landscape from a high point
such as a knoll or an upper floor window. Such a vantage point may provide
an excellent transition before physically entering the cultural landscape.
On ground, evidence should then be studied, including character-defining features,
visual and spatial relationships. By reviewing supporting materials from
historic research, individual features can be understood in a systematic
fashion that show the continuum that exists on the ground today. By classifying
these features and relationships, the landscape can be understood as an
artifact, possessing evidence of evolving natural systems and human interventions
over time.
For example, the on-site investigation of an abandoned turn-of-the-century farm
complex reveals the remnant of a native oak and pine forest which was cut
and burned in the mid-nineteenth century. This previous use is confirmed
by a small stand of mature oaks and the presence of these plants in the
emerging secondary woodland growth that is overtaking this farm complex
in decline. A ring count of the trees can establish a more accurate age.
By reading other character-defining features, such as the traces of
old roads, remnant hedgerows, ornamental trees along boundary roads, foundation
plantings, the terracing of grades and remnant fences--the visual, spatial and
contextual relationships of the property as it existed a century ago may
be understood and its present condition and integrity evaluated.
The findings of on-site reconnaissance, such as materials uncovered during
archival research, may be considered primary data. These findings make it
possible to inventory and evaluate the landscape's features in the context
of the property's current condition. Character-defining features are located
in situ, in relationship to each other and the greater cultural and geographic
contexts.
Historic Plant Inventory
Within cultural landscapes, plants may have historical or botanical significance.
A plant may have been associated with a historic figure or event or be part
of a notable landscape design. A plant may be an uncommon cultivar, exceptional
in size, age, rare and commercially/unavailable. If such plants are lost,
there would be a loss of historic integrity and biological diversity of
the cultural landscape. To ensure that significant plants are preserved, an
inventory of historic plants is being conducted at the North Atlantic Region
of the National Park Service. Historical landscape architects work with
landscape managers and historians to gather oral and documented history
on the plant's origin and potential significance. Each plant is then examined
in the field by an expert horticulturist who records its name, condition,
age, size, distribution, and any notable botanic characteristics.
Plants that are difficult to identify or are of potential historical significance
are further examined in the laboratory by a plant taxonomist who compares
leaf, fruit, and flower characteristics with herbarium specimens for named
species, cultivars and varieties. For plants species with many cultivars,
such as apples, roses, and grapes, specimens may be sent to specialists
for identification.
If a plant cannot be identified, is dying or in decline, and unavailable from
commercial nurseries, it may be propagated. Propagation ensures that when
rare and significant plants decline, they can be replaced with genetically-identical
plants. Cuttings are propagated and grown to replacement size in a North
Atlantic Region Historic Plant Nursery.
Site Analysis: Evaluating Integrity and Significance
By analyzing the landscape, its change over time can be understood. This
may be accomplished by overlaying the various period plans with the existing
conditions plan. Based on these findings, individual features may be attributed
to the particular period when they were introduced, and the various periods
when they were present.
It is during this step that the historic significance of the landscape
component of a historic property and its integrity are determined. Historic
significance is the recognized importance a property displays when it has
been evaluated, including when it has been found to meet National Register
Criteria. A landscape may have several areas of historical significance.
An understanding of the landscape as a continuum through history is critical
in assessing its cultural and historic value. In order for the landscape to
have integrity, these character-defining features or qualities that contribute
to its significance must be present.
 The landscape of Lyndhurst, Tarrytown, New York, is significant in American culture and work of a master gardener, Ferdinand Mangold. Photo: National Trust for Historic Preservation. |
While National Register nominations document the significance and integrity
of historic properties, in general, they may not acknowledge the significance
of the landscape's design or historic land uses, and may not contain an
inventory of landscape features or characteristics. Additional research
is often necessary to provide the detailed information about a landscape's
evolution and significance useful in making decision for the treatment and maintenance
of a historic landscape. Existing National Register forms may be amended
to recognize additional areas of significance and to include more complete
descriptions of historic properties that have significant land areas and
landscape features.
Integrity is a property's historic identity evidenced by
the survival
of physical characteristics from the property's historic or pre-historic
period. The seven qualities of integrity are location, setting, feeling,
association, design, workmanship and materials. When evaluating these
qualities, care should be taken to consider change itself. For example,
when a second-generation woodland overtakes an open pasture in a battlefield
landscape, or a woodland edge encloses a scenic vista. For situations such
as these, the reversibility and/or compatibility of those features should
be considered, both individually, and in the context of the overall landscape.
Together, evaluations of significance and integrity, when combined with
historic research, documentation of existing conditions, and analysis findings, influence
later treatment and interpretation decisions.
Developing
a Historic Preservation Approach and Treatment Plan
Treatment may be defined as work carried out to achieve a historic preservation
goal--it cannot be considered in a vacuum. There are many practical and philosophical
factors that may influence the selection of a treatment for a landscape.
These include the relative historic value of the property, the level of
historic documentation, existing physical conditions, its historic significance
and integrity, historic and proposed use (e.g. educational, interpretive,
passive, active public, institutional or private), long-and short-term objectives,
operational and code requirements (e.g. accessibility, fire, security) and
costs for anticipated capital improvement, staffing and maintenance. The
value of any significant archeological and natural resources should also
be considered in the decision-making process. Therefore, a cultural landscape's
preservation plan and the treatment selected will consider a broad array
of dynamic and inter-related considerations. It will often take the form
of a plan with detailed guidelines or specifications.
TREATMENTS FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPES
Prior to undertaking work on a landscape, a treatment plan or similar
document should be developed. The four primary treatments identified in
the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic
Properties, are:
Preservation is defined as the act or process of applying measures necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and materials of an historic property. Work, including preliminary measures to protect and stabilize the property, generally focuses upon the ongoing maintenance and repair of historic materials and features rather than extensive replacement and new construction. New additions are not within the scope of this treatment; however, the limited and sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems and other code-required work to make properties functional is appropriate within a preservation project.
Rehabilitation is defined as the act or process of making possible
a compatible use for a property through repair, alterations,and additions
while preserving those portions or features which convey its historical
or cultural values.
Restoration is defined as the act or process of accurately depicting
the form, features, and character of a property as it appeared at a particular
period of time by means of the removal of features from other periods in
its history and reconstruction of missing features from the restoration
period. The limited and sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical and
plumbing systems and other code-required work to make properties functional
is appropriate within a restoration project.
Reconstruction is defined as the act or process of depicting, by
means of new construction, the form, features, and detailing of a non-surviving
site, landscape, building, structure, or object for the purpose of replicating
its appearance at a specific period of time and in its historic location.
Adopting such a plan, in concert with a preservation maintenance plan, acknowledges a cultural landscape's ever-changing existence
and the inter-relationship of treatment and ongoing maintenance. Performance
standards, scheduling and record keeping of maintenance activities on a
day-to-day or month-to-month basis, may then be planned for. Treatment,
management, and maintenance proposals can be developed by a broad range
of professionals and with expertise in such fields as landscape preservation,
horticulture, ecology, and landscape maintenance.
 When the American Elm was plagued with Dutch Elm Disease, many historic properties relied on the Japanese Zelkova as a substitute plant (see below). Photo: NPS files. |
The selection of a primary treatment for the landscape, utilizing the
Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties,
establishes an overall historic preservation approach, as well as a philosophical
framework from which to operate. Selecting a treatment is based on many
factors. They include management and interpretation objectives for the property
as a whole, the period(s) of significance, integrity, and condition of individual landscape
features.
For all treatments, the landscape's existing conditions and its ability
to convey historic significance should be carefully considered. For example,
the life work, design philosophy and extant legacy of an individual designer
should all be understood for a designed landscape, such as an estate, prior
to treatment selection. For a vernacular landscape, such as a battlefield
containing a largely intact mid-nineteenth century family farm, the uniqueness
of that agrarian complex within a local, regional, state, and national context
should be considered in selecting a treatment.
The overall historic preservation approach and treatment approach can
ensure the proper retention, care, and repair of landscapes and their inherent
features. In short, the Standards act as a preservation and management
tool for cultural landscapes. The four potential treatments are described
above.
 Compared to the American Elm (above right), it is readily apparent that the form and scale of this tree is really quite different, and would be an inappropriate substitute plant material within a restoration or reconstruction project. Photo: NPS files. |
Landscape treatments can range from simple, inexpensive preservation actions,
to complex major restoration or reconstruction projects. The progressive
framework is inverse in proportion to the retention of historic features
and materials. Generally, preservation involves the least change, and is
the most respectful of historic materials. It maintains the form and material
of the existing landscape. Rehabilitation usually accommodates contemporary
alterations or additions without altering significant historic features
or materials, with successful projects involving minor to major change.
Restoration or reconstruction attempts to recapture the appearance of a
property,or an individual feature at a particular point in time, as confirmed by
detailed historic documentation. These last two treatments most often require
the greatest degree of intervention and thus,the highest level of documentation.
In all cases, treatment should be executed at the appropriate level, reflecting
the condition of the landscape, with repair work identifiable upon close
inspection and/or indicated in supplemental interpretative information.
When repairing or replacing a feature, every effort should be made to achieve
visual and physical compatibility. Historic materials should be matched
in design, scale, color and texture.
A landscape with a high level of integrity and authenticity may suggest
preservation as the primary treatment. Such a treatment may emphasize protection,
stabilization, cyclical maintenance,and repair of character-defining landscape
features. Changes over time that are part of the landscape's continuum and
are significant in their own right may be retained, while changes that are
not significant, yet do not encroach upon or erode character may also be
maintained. Preservation entails the essential operations to safeguard existing
resources.
 The historic birch allee at Stan Hywet Hall, Akron, Ohio, which had suffered from borer infestation and leaf miner, was preserved through a series of carefully executed steps that took 15 years to realize. Photo: Child Associates. |
Rehabilitation is often selected in response to a contemporary use or
need--ideally such an approach is compatible with the landscape's historic
character and historic use. Rehabilitation may preserve existing fabric
along with introducing some compatible changes, new additions and alterations.
Rehabilitation may be desirable at a private residence in a historic district
where the homeowner's goal is to develop an appropriate landscape treatment
for a front yard, or in a public park where a support area is needed for
its maintenance operations.
When the most important goal is to portray a landscape at an exact period of time, restoration is selected as the primary
treatment. Unlike preservation and rehabilitation, interpreting the landscape's
continuum or evolution is not the objective. Restoration may include the
removal of features from other periods and/or the construction of missing
or lost features and materials from the reconstruction period. In all cases,
treatment should be substantiated by the historic research findings and
existing conditions documentation. Restoration and re-construction treatment
work should avoid the creation of a landscape whose features did not exist
historically. For example, if features from an earlier period did not co-exist
with extant features from a later period that are being retained, their
restoration would not be appropriate.
In rare cases, when evidence is sufficient to avoid conjecture, and no
other property exists that can adequately explain a certain period of history,
reconstruction may be utilized to depict a vanished landscape. The accuracy
of this work is critical. In cases where topography and the sub-surface of
soil have not been disturbed, research and existing conditions findings
may be confirmed by thorough archeological investigations. Here too, those
features that are intact should be repaired as necessary, retaining the original
historic features to the greatest extent possible. The greatest danger in
reconstruction is creating a false picture of history.
False historicism in every treatment should be avoided. This applies to
individual features as well as the entire landscape. Examples of inappropriate
work include the introduction of historic-looking benches that are actually
a new design, a fanciful gazebo placed in what was once an open meadow,
executing an unrealized historic design, or designing a historic-looking
landscape for a relocated historic structure within "restoration."
LANDSCAPE INTERPRETATION
Landscape interpretation is the process of providing the visitor with
tools to experience the landscape as it existed during its period of significance,
or as it evolved to its present state. These tools may vary widely, from
a focus on existing features to the addition of interpretive elements. These
could include exhibits, self-guided brochures, or a new representation of
a lost feature. The nature of the cultural landscape, especially its level
of significance, integrity, and the type of visitation anticipated may frame
the interpretive approach. Landscape interpretation may be closely linked
to the integrity and condition of the landscape, and therefore, its ability
to convey the historic character and character-defining features of the
past. If a landscape has high integrity, the interpretive approach may be
to direct visitors to surviving historic features without introducing obtrusive
interpretive devices, such as free-standing signs. For landscapes with a
diminished integrity, where limited or no fabric remains, the interpretive emphasis
may be on using extant features and visual aids (e.g., markers, photographs,
etc.) to help visitors visualize the resourceas it existed in the past.
The primary goal in these situations is to educate the visitor about the
landscape's historic themes, associations and lost character-defining features
or broader historical, social and physical landscape contexts.
Developing
a Preservation Maintenance Plan and Implementation Strategy
Throughout the preservation planning process, it is important to ensure
that existing landscape features are retained. Preservation maintenance
is the practice of monitoring and controlling change in the landscape to
ensure that its historic integrity is not altered and features are not lost.
This is particularly important during the research and long-term treatment
planning process. To be effective, the maintenance program must have a guiding
philosophy, approach or strategy; an understanding of preservation maintenance techniques;
and a system for documenting changes in the landscape.
 Central Park has developed an in-house historic preservation crew to undertake small projects. A specialized crew has been trained to repair and rebuild rustic furnishings. Photo: Central Park Conservancy. |
The philosophical approach to maintenance should coincide with the landscape's
current stage in the preservation planning process. A Cultural Landscape
Report and Treatment Plan can take several years to complete, yet during
this time managers and property owners will likely need to address immediate
issues related to the decline, wear, decay, or damage of landscape features.
Therefore, initial maintenance operations may focus on the stabilization and
protection of all landscape features to provide temporary, often emergency
measures to prevent deterioration, failure, or loss, without altering the
site's existing character.
After a Treatment Plan is implemented, the approach to preservation maintenance
may be modified to reflect the objectives defined by this plan. The detailed
specifications prepared in the Treatment Plan relating to the retention,
repair, removal, or replacement of features in the landscape should guide
and inform a comprehensive preservation maintenance program. This would
include schedules for monitoring and routine maintenance, appropriate preservation maintenance procedures, as well as ongoing record keeping of work performed. For vegetation, the preservation maintenance program would also include thresholds for growth or change in character, appropriate pruning methods, propagation and replacement
procedures.
To facilitate operations, a property may be divided into discrete management
zones. These zones are sometimes defined during the Cultural
Landscape Report process and are typically based on historically defined
areas. Alternatively, zones created for maintenance practices and priorities
could be used. Examples of maintenance zones would include woodlands, lawns,
meadow, specimen trees, and hedges.
Training of maintenance staff in preservation maintenance skills is essential.
Preservation maintenance practices differ from standard maintenance practices
because of the focus on perpetuating the historic character or use of the
landscape rather than beautification. For example, introducing new varieties
of turf, roses or trees is likely to be inappropriate. Substantial earth
moving (or movement of soil) may be inappropriate where there are potential
archeological resources. An old hedge or shrub should be rejuvenated, or
propagated, rather than removed and replaced. A mature specimen tree may
require cabling and careful monitoring to ensure that it is not a threat to
visitor safety. Through training programs and with the assistance of preservation
maintenance specialists, each property could develop maintenance specifications
for the care of landscape features.
Because landscapes change through the seasons, specifications for ongoing
preservation maintenance should be organized in a calendar format. During
each season or month, the calendar can be referenced to determine when,
where, and how preservation maintenance is needed. For example, for some
trees structural pruning is best done in the late winter while other trees
are best pruned in the late summer. Serious pests are monitored at specific
times of the year, in certain stages of their life cycle. This detailed calendar
will, in turn, identify staff needs and work priorities.
Depending on the level of sophistication desired, one approach to documenting
maintenance data and recording change over time is to use a computerized
geographical or visual information system. Such a system would have the
capability to include plans and photographs that would focus on a site's
landscape features.
If a computer is not available, a manual or notebook can be developed to
organize and store important information. This approach allows managers
to start at any level of detail and to begin to collect and organize information
about landscape features. The value of these
maintenance records cannot be overstated. These records will be used in
the future by historians to understand how the landscape has evolved with
the ongoing care of the maintenance staff.
Recording
Treatment Work and Future Research Recommendations
The last and ongoing step in the preservation planning process records
the treatment work as carried out. It may include a series of as-built drawings,
supporting photographic materials, specifications and a summary assessment.
New technologies that have been successfully used should be highlighted.
Ideally, this information should be shared with interested national organizations
for further dissemination and evaluation.
The need for further research or additional activities should also be
documented. This may include site-specific or contextual historical research,
archeological investigations, pollen analysis, search for rare or unusual
plant materials, or, material testing for future applications.
Finally, in consultation with a conservator or archivist-to maximize the
benefit of project work and to minimize the potential of data loss--all primary
documents should be organized and preserved as archival materials. This
may include field notes, maps, drawings, photographs, material samples,
oral histories and other relevant information.
DEVELOPING A PRESERVATION MAINTENANCE GUIDE
In the past, there was rarely adequate record-keeping to fully understand
the ways a landscape was maintained. This creates gaps in our research findings.
Today, we recognize that planning for ongoing maintenance and onsite applications
should be documented--both routinely and comprehensively. An annual work
program or calendar records the frequency of maintenance work on built or
natural landscape features. It can also monitor the age, health and vigor of
vegetation. For example, onsite assessments may document the presence of
weeds, pests, dead leaves, pale color, wilting, soil compaction--all of which
signal particular maintenance needs. For built elements, the deterioration
of paving or drainage systems may be noted and the need for repair or replacement
indicated before hazards develop. An overall maintenance program can assist
in routine and cyclic maintenance of the landscape and can also guide long
term treatment projects.
To help structure a comprehensive maintenance operation that is responsive
to staff, budget, and maintenance priorities, the National Park Service
has developed two computer-driven programs for its own landscape resources.
A Maintenance Management Program (MM)is designed to assist maintenance
managers in their efforts toplan, organize, and direct the park maintenance
system. An Inventory and Condition Assessment Program (ICAP) is designed
to complement MM by providing a system for inventorying, assessing conditions, and
for providing corrective work recommendations for all site features.
Another approach to documenting maintenance and recording changes over
time is to develop a manual or computerized graphic information system.
Such a system should have the capability to include plans and photographs
that would record a site's living collection of plant materials. (Also see
discussion of the use of photography under Preparing Existing Conditions Plans) This may be achieved using a computer-aided drafting program
along with an integrated database management system.
To guide immediate and ongoing maintenance, a systematic and flexible approach
has been developed by the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation. Working
with National Park Service landscape managers and maintenance specialists,
staff assemble information and make recommendations for the care of individual
landscape features.
Each landscape feature is inspected in the field to document existing conditions
and identify field work needed. Recommendations include maintenance procedures
that are sensitive to the integrity of the landscape.
Summary
The planning, treatment, and maintenance of cultural landscapes requires
a multi-disciplinary approach. In landscapes, such as parks and playgrounds,
battlefields, cemeteries, village greens, and agricultural land preserves
more than any other type of historic resource--communities rightly presume
a sense of stewardship. It is often this grass roots commitment that has
been a catalyst for current research and planning initiatives. Individual
residential properties often do not require the same level of public outreach, yet
a systematic planning process will assist in making educated treatment,
management and maintenance decisions.
Wise stewardship protects the character, and or spirit of a place by
recognizing history as change over time. Often, this also involves our own
respectful changes through treatment. The potential benefits from the preservation
of cultural landscapes are enormous. Landscapes provide scenic, economic,
ecological, social, recreational and educational opportunities that help
us understand ourselves as individuals, communities and as a nation. Their
ongoing preservation can yield an improved quality of life for all, and,
above all, a sense of place or identity for future generations.
Selected Reading
Birnbaum, Charles A., guest editor. Preservation Forum. "Focus on
Landscape Preservation". Washington, D.C.: National Trustfor Historic
Preservation, Volume 7, No. 3, May/June 1992.
Buggey Susan, guest editor. APT Bulletin. Special Issue: Conserving Historic
Landscapes. Fredericksburg, VA: Association for PreservationTechnology
International, Volume XXIV, No. 3-4, 1992.
Burns, John A, and the Staff of HABS/HAER. Recording Historic Structures.
American Institute of Architects Press, 1989.(Includes chapter on the
documentation of Meridian Hill Park,pp. 206-219.)
Diehl, Janet and Thomas S. Barrett, et al. The Conservation Easement Handbook.
Managing Land Conservation and Historic Preservation Easement Programs,
The Land Trust Exchange (now Alliance) and the Trust for Public Land, 1988.
International Committee of Historic Gardens and Sites, ICOMOS-IFLA.Jardins et Sites Historiques, Scientific Journal. ICOMOS1993. Compilation of
papers on the subject, in both English andFrench.
Kelso, William M., and Rachel Most. Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape
Archaeology. Charlottesville, VA. University Press of Virginia, 1990.
Stokes, Samuel, N., et al. Saving America's Countryside: A Guide to Rural
Conservation. Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1989.
Tishler, William, editor. American Landscape Architecture: Designers
and Places. Washington, DC: The Preservation Press,1989.
Acknowledgements
The author, Charles A. Birnbaum, Coordinator, Historic Landscape Initiative,
Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Service would like to acknowledge
the assistance of H. Ward Jandl and Kay Weeks. The Olmsted Center for Landscape
Preservation at the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site including
Margie Coffin, Lauren Meier, Nora Mitchell, and Charlie Pepper provided invaluable
support. In particular, the proposed rewrite on Preservation Maintenance
and historic plant materials was written by Margie Coffin. Significant contributions
were also made by Patricia M. O'Donnell, Linda McClelland, Ellen Lipsey,
Christine Capella Peters, Robert Page, Ian Firth and Robert Melnick. Useful comments
and technical assistance were provided by regional NPS staff (Mary Hughes,
Lucy Lawliss, Jill Cowley, Sherda Williams, Michael Crowe, Robbyn Jackson)
and staff at the Preservation Assistance Division (Cheryl Wagner, Michael
Auer and Anne Grimmer).
Washington, D.C. September, 1994
Home page logo: Taro fields in Hanalei, Hawaii. Photo: NPS files.
