IN
THE
NATIONAL
PARK SERVICE
National Park Service
Department of the Interior
April 2005
PREFACE/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
What
is Oral History?
Why
is Oral History Important?
Oral
History in the National Park Service
II. Organizing an Oral History Project
Establish
Goals and Objectives
Determine
Staff Requirements
Identify
Potential Interviewees
Equipment
Budget
Balancing Objectives and Project
Resources
III. Preparing for and Conducting the
Interviews
Background
Research
Topics
and Questions
Scheduling
Interviews
Setting
up the Interview
Asking
Questions
After
the Interview
IV. Handling Oral History Archives
Arrangement
Physical
Processing and Storage
ANCS+
Cataloging
V. Processing and Using Oral History
Tape
Transcription
Editing
the Transcript
Finalizing
the Interview
Oral
History as Research Material
Using
the Products of Oral History
VI. Ethics and Legalities
Ethical
Considerations
Legal
Considerations
Defamation and Libel
Privacy
Copyright
Deed of Gift/Legal Release
Freedom of Information Act
I.
INTRODUCTION
What is Oral History?
Oral history can be defined in various
ways. Traditionally oral history is defined as a primary resource document
created in an interview setting with an individual who has witnessed or
participated in a historical event or series of events with the goal of
collecting and preserving that individual’s first-hand information and making
it available to future researchers. It is an individual’s spoken memories,
personal commentaries, recollections, perspectives, interpretations, and
narrative accounts of past events and experiences. It is a structured conversation
or dialogue between at least two individuals, an interviewer and interviewee,
about some significant aspect of the past. The interviewer’s questions and the
interviewee’s responses shape each other. Oral history then is a research process that involves collaboration
between interviewers and interviewees who revisit the past, but it is also a product in the form of handwritten
notes, videotapes, or audio recordings. An interview need not be recorded on
tape or electronically to be oral history.[1]
Whether
planning an oral history project, conducting interviews, or using the products
of oral history, it is important to understand both the strengths and
weaknesses of oral history. It is an excellent tool and process for collecting
personal accounts as historical documents. Oral history often records
perspectives and experiences not normally documented, with an emphasis on the
human experience, and can open up new sources of knowledge. It captures and
preserves the perspectives of those in power and the decision-making process,
as well as the perspectives and lives of populations that have been
underrepresented in the written record. However, oral history interviews are
generally not the best way to acquire certain kinds of factual information,
such as specific dates or places because individuals frequently fail to recall
these details accurately. More traditional historical sources such as
newspapers, archives, and park files are often more reliable, accurate sources
for this.
The
term oral history has sometimes been used interchangeably with terms such as
oral tradition, oral testimony, traditional knowledge, and folklore. These
latter terms are derived primarily from the disciplines of anthropology,
sociology, and folklore studies. While professionals in a variety of
disciplines use recorded interviews to collect information and have increasing
adopted oral history interviewing techniques, they frequently differ in their
objectives, methodology, and product. Not all interviews are oral history. Oral
history, as specifically defined, deals with first hand knowledge. It focuses
on personal memories and accounts of events and experiences that occurred
during the lifetime of the person being interviewed. By contrast, oral
tradition deals with narratives or recollections of the distant past that are
passed from generation to generation and become transformed over time. It can
reflect broader cultural patterns and convey important cultural values and
concepts. Much like oral historians folklorists also use interviews, but they
do not necessarily collect the same type of information. Folklorists collect
the traditional stories and songs of a community. To some extent the original
purpose of the interview determines how it is done. The guidance in this
handbook applies primarily to the practice of oral history. More detailed
guidance concerning oral tradition, folklore, and other types of recorded
interviews will be addressed in the planned Director’s Order 28(D):
Ethnography.
Why is Oral History Important?
Oral
history can be a very valuable research method. It is especially useful for
learning about people's perceptions about a historic event or their
associations with park resources, and for gaining information that is generally
not available in the written record. Interviews can be particularly useful in
situations where written documents are scarce or non- existent, particularly in
this age where so much information is communicated by phone or electronic mail.
Oral history is a unique resource that has given a voice to those who were
frequently overlooked in the past such as women, minorities, immigrants, and
the disenfranchised, and it incorporates everyday life experiences into the
written record. It has helped give voice to Native peoples, African Americans,
and other groups whose past was often presented and interpreted by cultural
outsiders.
Oral history interviews can help
explain the thoughts and reasons behind human action and contribute to a
fuller, more accurate picture of the past. In some instances, oral history
interviews provide park staff with their only source of information about a
particular site, event, or individual. Moreover, the statements of actual
participants in a historical event bring realism and immediacy to a historic
site, event, resource, or collection of artifacts. Interviews can help give
perspective to written sources, provide context, and fill in gaps. They can
provide rare insight into the decision-making process and also capture deeply
embedded cultural values and perspectives.
·
Oral
history helps us achieve the ultimate goal of preserving the nation’s heritage.
In addition to advancing historical research, oral history can foster a deeper
appreciation for diverse, little known, or in some instances vanishing ways of
life, particularly with Native communities.
·
It
can help identify places that require special care or consideration in
management decisions.
·
It
can verify the authenticity of events and sites that cannot be determined by
more traditional methods of historical research.
·
It
can help document and provide insight into the life history of a specific
individual.
·
Using
oral history allows us to capture and preserve important aspects of a human
experience that would otherwise go undocumented.
·
Oral
history helps transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and opens up
new avenues for research.
·
Oral
history helps park staffs to demonstrate to associated communities that they
are genuinely interested in their histories and perspectives.
Although oral history provides all
the advantages mentioned above, remember that it is just one implement in the
historian’s or other professional’s ’s toolbox. No matter how thorough and
successful the interview or interviews, they are no substitute for archival
research and other means of investigation.
Oral History in the National Park Service
Oral
history is directly linked to the National Park Service’s basic mission of
preserving and protecting park natural and cultural resources and educating the
public about those resources. Since its inception, the National Park Service
has had a unique and important role in documenting and preserving the nation’s
cultural and historical memory. Oral history has long been an invaluable tool
for performing this role.
Park oral history projects and
programs vary greatly in size, scope, and objectives. Park Service rangers,
interpreters, historians, archeologists, ethnographers, curators, and
historical and cultural landscape architects collect and use oral history to
document the history of the parks and park resources, as well as the people and
events that the parks commemorate. They use recorded interviews to document the lives and cultures
of the people associated with the parks and to provide important information
about properties, landscapes, and structures within park boundaries. Parks can
use oral history to determine how a specific site was used, identify people
traditionally associated with a park site, or learn why and how park officials
adopted a particular policy. Oral history is used to document the events,
people, and resources associated with National Historic Landmarks and the
National Register of Historic Places.
Oral history is a particularly
useful tool for parks that commemorate recent events, where witnesses are still
living. The Service increasingly uses
oral history to give voice to those who have been silenced, ignored, or
overlooked. Some of the Service’s more recent oral history projects such as the
ones at Nicodemus National Historic Site, Manzanar National Historic Site,
Women’s Rights National Historical Park, and the Tuskeegee Airmen National
Historic Site highlight the perspectives and often the contributions of women,
minorities, and the disenfranchised. The Ellis Island Oral History Project
collects and records the personal perspectives and experiences of
immigrants.
Park
staffs use oral history to support their interpretive programs and to create
interpretive products such as exhibits, movies, and videos shown in visitor
centers, museums, and elsewhere. At Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site,
Statue of Liberty National Monument, and many other Park Service units, the
staffs incorporate excerpts from oral history interviews into park
interpretation. Statements by people who were actual participants in a
historical event or movement bring realism and immediacy to a collection of
"artifacts." When the recording is done with the knowledge that
eventually someone may edit the tape and play it back for the public, a more
professional sound quality and perhaps a different approach are required than
when recording simply to gather information. For maximum impact, first person
stories should have a quality of realism and intimacy not always found in oral
history recordings, and which require the highest quality equipment available
as well as skill and experience in using that equipment.
The National Park Service uses oral history interviews to support
administrative history in individual parks, in regional and support offices,
and in its service centers. Interviews with current and former park service
managers and staff provide rich source material for park administrative
histories, just as interviews with former directors, planners and policy makers
enrich Service-wide administrative history. Park Service employees use oral
history in published park histories, park historical resource studies, and in
Service-wide administrative histories. Oral history interviews can augment park
files and in some instances might be the only way to document important aspects
of a park’s history.
Oral
history is used to document the history of individual parks and the National
Park Service as a federal agency. It is also used to document the events or
people that parks commemorate such as Dwight D. Eisenhower, Carl Sandburg,
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Orville and Wilbur Wright. Projects are sometimes
designed to determine the contributions that individuals made to a movement
such as civil rights and women’s rights or to trace the impact of a movement
such as homesteading or steam era railroad industry on individuals and
communities. Interviews with park staff, local community representatives, and
others can provide useful information for park planning.
Park staffs have often done oral
history in conjunction with their various history studies. Oral history helps
historical architects and others gather the details of day-to-day life in
historic buildings or at historic sites – to recreate period furnishings and
decorations by interviewing those associated with that building during a
particular era. Oral history interviews can be a useful tool in the historic
landscape documentation process. The National Register documentation process
may occasionally involve the use of oral history.[2]
Oral
history helps the Service develop interpretive programs that are rooted in a
solid knowledge of the culture or cultures involved. It can be extremely useful
in implementing management policies related to park planning, cultural resource
management, education, community relations, and interpretation.
Anthropologists use recorded
interviews to collect individual life histories, migration histories, histories
of extended families or communities, and histories of tribal settlement. They
use them to document and interpret the traditional uses of particular objects,
artifacts, and culturally significant places. Recorded interviews also help
them identify and document subsistence practices of Native Alaskans as required
by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 and to meet
requires of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, as amended in
1994.[3] Additional detail will be provided in
Directors Order 28 (D): Ethnography.
Archeologists use recorded
interviews to get information about the use of natural resources, changes to
the cultural landscapes, the locations of demolished buildings, and the
development of historic districts. They also use it to identify sites, often by
visiting a particular place or area with the interviewee. They can frequently
gain insights into prehistoric practices, priorities, and sites through more
current practices and decision-making. Interviews also provide accounts of how
a certain process was implemented or a technology was performed. Staffs use
interviews to document ritual performance, interpret artifacts and for life
histories of the people who used a site or of park archeologists and cultural
resource managers.
While Service historians, ethnographers,
and archeologists use different interviewing techniques and methodologies,
there is much they can learn from each other and contribute to each other.
These disciplines operate under the same overarching goal – to document and
preserve our unique cultural heritage.
II. ORGANIZING AN ORAL HISTORY PROJECT
Initially,
doing oral history might seem much easier, less time consuming, and more cost
effective than other methods of conducting historical research. This impression
is usually false. Oral history is not always the most appropriate or least
expensive method for researching a particular topic or individual. Sometimes
written sources will provide more complete and accurate information. As noted
earlier, oral history is an excellent tool for learning about a person’s life and
career and documenting an individual's involvement in or perspective on
historical events. However, detailed information about specific names, dates,
and events can be difficult to substantiate in oral history interviews, because
people often confuse them so easily. Not only is the research in the written
sources (and quite possibly also in photographs, buildings, and artifacts)
still necessary in order to get oral history worth recording on tape, but
conducting the interview is only a small part of an oral history project. At a
minimum the interview recording should be indexed and properly preserved, and
if possible it should be put into written form.
Careful planning is critical to the
success of any oral history project. Insufficient or inadequate planning can
make even a simple project difficult or lead to less than satisfactory results.
Ideally, the planning should be done long before the actual interview process
begins. Park staff should think as broadly as possible in designing oral
history projects and when appropriate should consult with local communities or
with experts in various other disciplines such as historians, ethnographers, or
archeologists. For example, an archeologist conducting interviews with park
neighbors may have questions about the changing use of the landscape and the
locations of demolished buildings. In this instance, the archeologist could
perhaps benefit from discussing the project with historians, ethnographers,
cultural landscape specialists, and even natural resource specialists to see if
there are other questions to ask of the interviewees. Representatives in these
disciplines might not be immediately available at individual parks, but park
staff can contact Service historians, ethnographers, and archeologists in the
regional offices, support offices, or in Washington, D.C. for advice and
assistance.
Establish Goals and Objectives
The first, and arguably most important,
step in planning an oral history project is to establish clear, reasonable
goals and objectives. Establishing clearly defined goals is a critical step
because it will affect all other aspects of the project. The project goals will
to a large extent determine the subject, scope, and methodology of the project.
They will have a huge impact on the substance and quality of the information
collected and on the ultimate success of the project. Even if the “project”
consists of only a single interview, the goals should be clearly defined.
A park interested in initiating an
oral history project may want to begin by assembling an advisory committee to
help guide the project. An effective committee may be made up of respected
scholars or administrators from within and outside the Service, perhaps
academics from a local university, who are familiar with the subject and the
people involved. It may also include an oral historian or a professional
interviewer to advise on the interviewing process and techniques. An advisory
committee could also include representatives of the communities or
organizations that might be the focus of a particular project. The committee
can help determine project goals, provide direction, and identify prospective
interviewees. It also may lend greater legitimacy to a planned project and
provide a broad base of support – something that might be helpful in obtaining
funding.
The
more the project is focused on specific goals, the easier it is to accumulate
unique accounts that together illustrate the broader themes of history.
Although the natural tendency is to try to interview as many people as
possible, with this approach park staff risk overwhelming the available
resources. Less can often be better. A carefully planned, thoughtful approach
will likely result in more in-depth interviews and ultimately more useful
information. Having said that, there is also a need for balance. Ideally,
projects need to make the best use of the funds available by recording focused,
well-planned interviews. However, parks are often faced with the reality that
if they did not interview certain individuals, particularly those who are
elderly, their perspectives will never be recorded for posterity. In some
instances, an imperfect interview that has not been transcribed might be better
than no interview at all.
It
is important to define the nature and scope of what you want to research. Some
of the questions that must be addressed in defining the project include the
following:
·
Is
using oral history the most appropriate and effective approach?
· What information--both general and
specific--do you seek from your interviewees?
· What basic questions do you want to
address? Do you want to learn about
their lives (biographical) or about a more general subject (topical)? For example, will the project focus on the
life of Dwight D. Eisenhower (by interviewing family members and colleagues
perhaps) or will it document how the Eisenhower farm became part of the
National Park Service?
·
How
large will your project be? How many interviews (or hours of tape) do you hope
to produce?
·
What
staff and financial resources will you need?
What staff and financial resources are available?
·
What
are the other sources of documentation for your questions? What historical
research or oral history interviews have already been done and how can they be
incorporated?
·
It
is a good idea to focus on collecting information that is not already available
elsewhere. How will the interviews be used? What kind of product do you want to
create and for what purpose? What do you
want to do with the information? Will
the information on the tapes be background for a research project or part of an
audio-visual program? As noted earlier,
an audio-visual program or exhibit will require higher quality sound and visual
images than interviews used for research.
·
What will become of the
completed tapes? How will the tapes be
processed and preserved? How will they
be made available to researchers?
After establishing clear goals, it
is helpful to outline the specific objectives that will allow you to achieve
those goals. The objectives should address the more detailed aspects of editing
the material, disseminating the tapes and transcripts that are collected, and
incorporating them in an archival collection.
As important as defining project
goals can be, it is also important to be flexible. It will become necessary to re-evaluate and
modify the goals during the course of conducting interviews. Some of the
original objectives might prove impractical or the interviews might open new
avenues for study.
After
establishing the goals and objectives, the next step is to determine the staff
resources required. How many
interviewers, transcribers, and perhaps editors will be needed to complete the
project in the time required? Will the
park or other sponsor use park staff, contractors, or volunteers to conduct the
interviews or transcribe the tapes? Does
the park or project planner wish to hire a professional interviewer? The availability of funds will to some extent
determine the number and make up of the project staff.
A
paid staff will generally provide the most consistent, high quality interviews
and provide greater continuity for the project. The interviewer need not be a
paid professional, but should have a clear speaking voice and, more important,
be a good listener who can adjust his or her individual style so as to put the
interviewee at ease. The interviewer should also be firm enough to guide the
interview effectively and keep it within the planned lines of inquiry. He or
she should also be knowledgeable about the subject and flexible enough to
recognize when the interviewee is offering unplanned but valuable information.
Experienced interviewers from outside the subject area will need to do
extensive research on the subject matter. By contrast, inexperienced interviewers
who are familiar with the subject matter will often need training in interview
techniques and should become familiar with the ethical and legal considerations
related to oral history.
Select the interviewer or
interviewers with care. Good oral history is often the result of a rapport or
bond that develops between the interviewer and the interviewee. This bond is
rooted in mutual respect, trust, understanding, and shared experiences or
interests. Both parties must share an appreciation for the lessons of the past
and an appreciation for the importance of the project itself. If the
interviewer is not genuinely interested in the subject, the project will
suffer.
In instances where interviews will
be done with individuals whose primary language is not English, project
planners will need to provide for and fund translators and/or interpreters.
Look for a translator or interpreter who has vocabulary consistent with the
project goals, is familiar with cultural speech conventions, and has the
ability to write in the native language and translate accurately and
objectively. See Appendix E for more information on translation and
transcription.
Identify
Potential Interviewees
The scope and subject of the project (and
perhaps the budget) will to some extent determine who should be
interviewed. It is difficult to
generalize about how to identify potential interviewees. There are no hard and
fast rules. Many different kinds of
people make good interviewees. Above all, prospective interviewees should be
knowledgeable about the subject of the project and have something to
contribute. In addition, interviewees should have the ability to speak clearly
enough to be understood, have a reliable memory, be willing and able to respond
to questions, have an interest in the subject, and have significant experiences
or insights to share. The health or age of the interviewee can be a factor in
determining who should be interviewed and how soon. The advisory committee, if
you have one, should be able to help identify potential interviewees. For
projects that focus on the local community, consider enlisting a respected
community leader to help identify potential interviewees and gain access.
Try
to be as comprehensive and inclusive as possible in identifying prospective
interviewees. In some cases, additional interviewees might be needed to
corroborate the data of principal interviewees or fill in gaps of information.
In planning, schedule time for both primary and secondary interviews. Analyze
your topic from various perspectives and then find individuals who can speak to
all sides of the story. For example, on some topics, you will want to
incorporate the views of park neighbors as well as park staff. Incorporate interviewees who provide different
perspectives and address different aspects of the subject. As you begin
conducting interviews, consider asking your interviewees to recommend other
individuals who might also be good sources. Newspapers, local libraries and
archives, park files, and county histories can also be used in identifying
prospective interviewees.
Although
it is important to keep project goals in mind when selecting interviewees,
there are times, particularly in projects dealing with particular communities
or groups, where the interviewer or project manager may not have total control
over decisions about who will be interviewed and when, or the order of
importance. With some projects, the age and gender of the interviewer and
potential interviewee might be a consideration.
Traditionally, oral history has been done
with audiotape recorders, but new technologies have emerged and are being used
with increasing frequency, such as video and digital recorders. There are many
options to consider when selecting equipment. The most critical considerations should
be the expected life of the equipment and the anticipated long-term ability to
retrieve the sound. Careful thought
about the nature and purpose of the project and the long-term needs for
retrieving and using the recorded voices will help you determine the type of
recording equipment that is best suited for your particular project. Since
equipment costs vary greatly, often the project budget will also be a
determining factor. Equipment is not an area of the budget where project
planners should seek to cut costs. The quality of the equipment will have a
huge impact on the long-term value of the project.
A
great many recording media are used for gathering oral history, including
motion pictures, videotape and audiotape. For the vast majority of interviews
the choice will be audio recording, but there are still choices to be made.
Recording options include reel-to-reel analog, cassette tape, or digital
recorders. Be careful to adopt only those technologies that adequately record
and preserve high quality sound and will provide for retrieval and access for
many years to come. Harpers Ferry Center’s audiovisual arts division can be an
excellent source of advice concerning equipment, as can archivists in the
National Park Service’s headquarters and regional offices, professional
organizations such as the Oral History Association, and archivists, oral
historians, and anthropologists from local universities and museums.
The
use of high quality recording equipment helps to ensure that in the future you
will have the greatest flexibility in using the interview material that you
have produced. Professional sound
quality reel-to-reel recorders are the best for archival preservation, but are
the most expensive and often the least practical tool for original recordings.
With the advances in technology, reel-to-reel recorders have become
increasingly scarce and difficult to locate and acquire. They are also
typically larger than other types of equipment and are cumbersome and awkward
to use, especially when conducting interviews at remote locations.
Although
neither digital or cassette recordings meet the standards of long-term archival
preservation, they provide reasonably priced, readily available alternatives to
reel-to-reel recordings. For many projects a good quality, moderately priced,
portable cassette tape recorder will suffice. Before choosing a cassette
recording, however, understand that usable recordings are unlikely to survive
over the long-term. Even the highest quality cassette tapes are fragile, delicate,
and definitely not mechanically stable enough to be of archival quality. If the
original recording is done on cassettes, consider copying the recording onto
reel-to-reel tapes for archival purposes. Be aware, however, that this process
can reduce the sound quality and add to the project’s cost.
The
use of standard video recordings and digital video recordings in oral history
interviews
has become more common. When considering
the use of video recording, carefully weigh the pros and cons. Video recordings
can reveal facial expressions and body language not conveyed in a transcript or
audio recording. They reveal both the interviewee’s personality and the setting
of the interview, providing color and context. However, the presence of the
camera can make some interviewees uncomfortable and ultimately affect the
rapport between the interviewer and interviewee.
Video
recordings can expand the options for use in exhibits or film, or in the case
of digital video recordings, the option of use on the Internet. If the
videotape is to have future use for interpretation, though, it should be
professionally recorded, sometimes making the cost prohibitive. Videotaping can
be expensive, especially if a crew is needed to operate the lighting, sound,
and video camera. If funding is an issue, consider selective video recording as
an option. You might interview only some
of the participants in your project or use an audio recording in the initial
interview and later go back to videotape select portions. Again, the use of
video recording will be determined to a great extent by the original project
goals and available resources. Finally, videotape does not meet the same
standard for long-term archival preservation as reel-to-reel tape.
As
a general rule, project planners should buy or borrow the highest quality
equipment they can afford. If you use a standard audiotape recorder, select one
that operates with both batteries and electricity as power sources to allow
flexibility during the interview. Having the option of operating on batteries
is particularly important for ethnographers and archeologists who often conduct
interviews on site, away from power sources. The audiotape recorder should also
have a window that allows you to view the tape as it is recording and have a
recording/battery light indicator so that you can easily verify that the
machine is recording properly. Look for features that allow you to monitor the
sound level, that warn when the tape is about to run out, and that indicate
when the batteries are getting low. Most
batteries will power a recorder for only four to six hours. Mini audio cassette
recorders and tape recorders developed for home use cannot produce adequate
sound quality and are not appropriate for recording oral history. The use of
hand-held video equipment is not recommended. The videotapes used with this
equipment do not meet permanent archival standards. Professional quality cameras and studio
videotapes should be used for long term preservation and use in exhibits.
Archivists prefer three-quarter inch or one-inch masters for videotapes.
Digital
audiotapes and mini disc recorders also have advantages and disadvantages. On
the plus side, the recorders are compact, the tapes reasonably priced, and the
sound quality generally good. Digital recordings tend to have much higher audio
quality than cassette audio recordings and can be duplicated without any
noticeable deterioration in sound quality. The recordings can be edited and
manipulated on a personal computer with readily available computer software.
However, the life span of the digital recordings is unclear. Be aware that in
the future you will probably need to transfer the data to newer technologies as
those technologies evolve. In the interim, consider copying the digital recordings
into other media.
Using
a high quality external microphone is as important as using a high quality
recorder. This avoids the problem of the tape recorder’s internal microphone
picking up the machine’s operating noise. For best results, choose an external
microphone that operates both with a direct current and batteries. Some
interviewers prefer lavaliere microphones, particularly for soft-spoken
individuals, but both interviewer and interviewee should have microphones.
Omni-directional tabletop microphones are another good option. They can be
placed in the center of a desk or table and record all speakers with equal
intensity.
Be
sure to use name brand cassette tapes with a reputation for consistent quality.
Tapes come in different time lengths: ranging from 30 minutes (C-30) to 120
minutes (C-120). C-30 means there are 15 minutes on each side. C-60 with 30
minutes on each side is the recommended length for archival purposes. C-90 and
C-120 tape is thinner and more prone to break or jam. Recordings on these thin tapes can bleed
through from one side to the other. Choose cassettes with screwed rather than
molded or glued casings so that you have direct access to the tape inside to
make repairs, untangle, or splice. Finally, be sure to take up the slack on the
tape before recording. Equipment can be ordered by catalog or over the Internet
from reputable manufacturers such as Marantz or through dealers. The General
Services Administration provides an easily accessible web-based system called
“GSA Advantage” <www.GSAadvantage.gov>, which allows
federal agencies to purchase recording equipment over the Internet from a
variety of vendors.
Budget
The budget for an oral history project
should include salaries, research time, travel, equipment, tape transcription,
indexing, cataloging, supplies, and in some instances administrative overhead
or the cost of a translator. For interview projects planned in more remote
areas where interviewees might not have telephone connections, the increased
cost of travel and logistics support should be taken into account.
Budget
estimates should also include funding for organizing, storing, and cataloging
the interview materials. A high quality oral history project can be expensive,
but there are ways to contain some of the costs. Equipment can be borrowed or
rented if that is more cost effective than purchase. A local public radio
station might rent a recording studio at a reduced rate. Unpaid volunteers can
be enlisted in the project. Volunteers who are skilled typists can perform
transcription if properly trained and equipped. Funding for oral history
projects or specific aspects of those projects, such as tape transcription, can
come from a variety of sources: park operating budgets, private grants, grants
from park associations, cooperative agreements with academic institutions, and
other sources. Locating funding sometimes requires creative thinking and a
willingness to establish partnerships. If project funding is limited, check
with a local university radio station or telecommunications department to see
if a faculty member or advanced student might be available to assist with the
project or if equipment can be obtained at reduced cost.
Balancing Objectives and Project Resources
After determining the amount of time,
money, equipment, and expertise you are willing and able to devote to the
project, it is important to balance those resources with your goals and
objectives. Consider these questions: Can you be sure of producing high quality
interviews, with the researchers and equipment available? If you need
additional resources, where can you get them? What is the level of expertise of
your interviewer or interviewers? Is it
possible to have only a few people conduct the interviews to ensure greater
consistency? What local resources do you have? What will it take to pull the
project together and how much time?
The
response to these questions will determine how much you can do and how quickly
you can do it. The questions will force you to prioritize your goals and to
build in quality control from the beginning. The key question is, can you
afford to do it right? If resources are limited, it is generally better to
focus on a few interviews first and process them thoroughly, rather than
conducting a larger number of interviews but not indexing, cataloging,
transcribing, or properly preserving them. When the available resources are not
balanced carefully with objectives, far too often the park ends up with little
more than a box or desk drawer full of unprocessed, unusable tapes.
As
you refine your project, your regional historian, chief of interpretation,
curator, archeologist or ethnographer, and the audiovisual arts division at
Harpers Ferry Center can be valuable sources of advice or review. Historians,
archeologists, and ethnographers in the Washington, D.C. headquarters can also
provide assistance. Bringing these offices in on your proposal soon after the
initial planning can prevent many potential problems.
III. PREPARING FOR AND CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS
Successful oral history interviews and
oral history projects are to a great extent the result of careful preparation
and skilled interviewing practices and procedures. Outlined below are some
basic steps that are recommended in preparing for and conducting these
interviews.
Background Research
Background
research is a critical first step in preparing for most oral history interviews
and projects. When researching an unfamiliar topic or individual, start with
books, newspapers, magazine articles, and other secondary sources, but also
consider investigating the local history section of the library or unpublished
and published genealogies if appropriate. When researching some aspect of the
history or development of a particular park, use published and unpublished
books, manuscripts, studies, and reports, as well as existing park files, park
records in the National Archives, or records in the National Park Service
history collection at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Locate and identify the
research that has already been done on your particular subject. Check for a
published or unpublished park administrative history and for existing oral
histories, perhaps in the Service’s large oral history collection at Harpers Ferry
Center. A review of all the existing, available sources will help you to
identify any gaps in the historical record. In some instances background
research might involve visits to the community where the interviews will be
conducted to become familiar with that community and its members.
After conducting the initial
research, outline the specific information you want, and the particular
individuals you might want to interview. Learn as much as possible about each
potential interviewee. If the project focuses on a particular community, then
learn as much as possible about that community. Ask your prospective
interviewees to suggest or provide any background material available on
themselves, such as news articles or resumes. For some types of oral history
projects, learning about the personal history of a prospective interviewee,
their ancestors, and their relationship to a particular park or site can be
very important. Another option would be to ask prospective interviewees to
complete a pre-interview questionnaire. Consider any special cultural or
language factors that might affect the interview. By knowing the basics about
an interviewee before the recording session, you will be able to concentrate on
your questions and their responses—and do a better interview. The list of
potential interviewees might change or expand as your research progresses. Your
initial research should raise new questions. It should help you decide who must
be interviewed and who should be, if time and resources permit. As mentioned
earlier, interviewees can often be very helpful in referring the interviewer to
other potential interviewees.
It
should be noted that there are exceptions. Background research on a particular
topic is not always possible for some interviews. Archeologists, ethnographers,
and others often do background research on the person they plan to interview
but there might be no written record on the subject of their research. Indeed
the lack of a written record can be a major reason for initiating and conducting
the project or interview.
Topics
and Questions
After
the preliminary research is complete, it is important to structure the content
of each interview in a meaningful way. The project goals will help determine
how the interviews are organized. The structure might be chronological or
topical, or some combination of both. A life history interview, for example,
will be well suited to a chronological approach, while an interview with a
former park superintendent will most likely follow a topical approach. Using
the background research, develop a list of either topics or questions.
One approach is to develop three kinds
of questions: background questions to establish the interviewee's credentials
and life story; core questions central to the research topic that are asked of
every interviewee; and specific questions to be posed only to those individuals
who are most likely to have that information. This approach provides a body of
general information about the topic and enables you to compare individual perceptions
and identify their particular biases.
All interview questions should be
appropriate, comprehensive, and unbiased. Good questions are in large part the
direct result of thorough background research. Greater familiarity with the
subject invariably leads to a better quality and quantity of information. In
addition, careful research makes it easier for the interviewer to establish a
rapport with the interviewee and conduct the interview. A well-prepared
interviewer will more likely be a confident interviewer. Although a prepared list of questions or
topics should serve as the interviewer’s guide during the interviews, the
interviewer’s general knowledge of the subject will give him the flexibility to
move beyond that list as the interviewee provides further detail.
Preparing a list of specific
questions (as opposed to general topics) has both advantages and drawbacks.
This step forces interviewers to organize their thoughts as they prepare for
their interviews and provides a guidepost
to follow during the interviews. Having a list of key questions helps the
interviewer avoid unintentionally introducing bias by asking each interviewee
different questions. This is especially important if several people are doing
the interviews or if long intervals of time pass between interviews. Also,
using some standardized key questions can make it easier for future researchers
to compare the perspectives of different interviewees on a particular topic.
Some
oral history experts, however, maintain that drafting a set of topics to cover
during an interview is preferable to writing out specific questions. They argue
that writing specific, detailed questions may constrain the range and flow of
the interview. By contrast, they contend, a general list of topics allows for
the fluctuation and the spontaneity so important to the interview process and
will result in richer, more detailed discussions. The debate over using general
topics versus specific questions will continue.
Ultimately,
each interviewer must select the approach that he or she finds most comfortable
and effective and the one best suited to the goals and purpose of the
particular interview or project. The goal is to acquire information, and
interview questions can be covered in a variety of ways. The interviewer should
be familiar enough with the list of questions or topics to facilitate a smooth
conversation that will ultimately provide the needed information. Whether using
lists of specific questions or general topics, the interviewer should remain open
to new questions or avenues for research that might emerge during the
interview. It is important to let the interviewee “tell their story” in their
own way. Sometimes this means deferring to the experience, expertise, and
insight of the interviewee. However, the interviewer must always listen
carefully and be ready with follow-up questions that elicit additional
information or provide clarification.
Scheduling
Interviews
Outlining
the planned topics and questions to be addressed will help the interviewer
determine whether additional research is required before conducting the
interview. If the interview is a topical one, what additional background
information do you want or need on this particular subject? If it is a
biographical interview, do you want to concentrate on certain aspects of the
interviewee's life? Defining the topics and questions will also help the
interviewer determine if there is a need to schedule more than one session. If
time with the interviewee will be limited, the interviewer must decide which
questions or topics are most important so that these can be addressed first. If
there are plans to use the interview as part of a wayside exhibit or a film,
the interviewer might want to ask certain questions whose answers might provide
particularly good content for such interpretive uses.
Develop
a list of individuals to be interviewed in priority order. Oral history experts
generally recommend that a project start with the oldest and most significant
interviewees first and leave the younger, more peripheral ones for later. In
addition to age, consider other factors such as mental ability, location, and
availability. In prioritizing interview candidates, also consider the
following: Who would have the best overall perspective? Who could supply
specific details? Although some oral history experts recommend interviewing the
most significant individuals first, other experts recommend conducting
preliminary interviews before interviewing these key individuals in order to
gather important background. Key interviewees can sometimes help identify other
good sources. Also note that multiple interviewees can be used to corroborate
information, identify inaccuracies, and acquire a greater level of detail.
Occasionally individuals may resist
being interviewed because they are unfamiliar with the process and do not
understand what is expected of them. To help alleviate these concerns, write or
call each prospective interviewee to explain the project’s objectives and your
affiliation and then request the interview. A common approach is to send a
letter (or e-mail) that introduces the interviewer, identifies the
interviewer’s agency, and indicates the purpose of the interview and the
general topics to be covered. Such a letter or memo might also briefly describe
the project to include the project goals and expectations. It is important to
convey why that individual’s particular story or perspective is important to
the project. In some instances, especially with remote communities where phone
and mail services are limited, a personal visit is the best approach.
If the initial contact is by letter
(or e-mail), follow up with a phone call to answer any questions about the
project, to determine their participation, and to schedule the actual
interview. An introductory letter,
though, might be ineffective with some individuals. A short introductory phone
call, perhaps with the name of a mutual acquaintance, could be more
effective. Follow up immediately with
correspondence confirming the request for an interview, the general subject,
and the agreed date. If the interview is going to be tape-recorded, be sure to
note this. The interviewer can also send an advance letter laying out in
general terms the subjects to be covered to refresh interviewee’s memory, which
might make the interviewee more comfortable, but avoid sending a list of
specific questions in advance. The interviewee might then provide rehearsed
answers that destroy spontaneity of the interview. The advance letter could
also ask the interviewee to share any relevant documents or photographs at the
time of the interview. Even with these efforts, some interviewees might still
be reluctant to share their traditional knowledge in an interview.
Conducting
oral history interviews can be both exhilarating and exhausting. The
interviewer should try not to schedule too many interviews in a single day. If
at all possible, limit yourself to three a day. Leave time to go back over the
interview while it is fresh in your mind to make notes to yourself about your
impressions, the interviewee’s demeanor, new questions raised, new sources, and
anything else which will help you remember that particular interview. The
length of a good interview may vary. There is no set limit. It is not unusual
for a career interview with a senior official to result in eight or ten hours
of tape. Individual interview sessions, however, are typically an hour and a
half to two hours. Rarely should they go beyond three hours. If more time is
needed, schedule another session if possible. Consider the age and health of
interviewee. An older interviewee might tire more easily, and the interviewer
should be alert for signs of fatigue. If
there are frequent interruptions during the interview, consider rescheduling it
for another time. Of course there will be instances where the number of
interviews and the length of interviews cannot be controlled and beyond
alertness for age and health considerations the interviewer simply adjusts to
the situation.
Finally,
when scheduling interviews, generally it is a good idea to avoid joint
interviews. The more parties involved in the interview, the more difficult it
becomes for the interviewer to retain control over the interview process and to
establish the rapport with the interviewee that is so important. Also, during
the course of a joint interview, one interviewee can influence the other and
dominate the interview, or the interviewees might compete with each other for
interview time. That said, in some instances joint interviews may be unavoidable,
or even desirable. When conducting joint interviews, clearly identify each
speaker on the tape to avoid confusion later. For projects that focus on a
specific community, avoid scheduling interviews at times that will conflict
with community events or holidays.
Select
a location for the interview that is quiet, comfortable for the interviewee,
and as free from distractions and interruptions as possible. The best location
may be a conference room or a private office, perhaps the interviewee’s office.
Some interviewees might be most comfortable in their homes. Large rooms are typically better for
recording purposes than small. Rooms with carpets, books and other soft
materials are far better than austere, reverberant rooms. Place the interviewee
out into the room rather than against a wall or in a corner because these hard
surfaces reflect the sound of his voice and will give the recording a
"hollow" or "tinny" quality. It is desirable to have your
subject's chair on a carpet, which not only soaks up some of the reflection of
his voice, but also muffles any sound of chair movements or foot tapping.
Background conversations and noises
are distracting and can mar the sound quality of the final tape. The recorder
will invariably pick up noises that the interview participants have learned to
filter out such as traffic, air conditioners and fans. Try to minimize these
intrusions as much as possible. Poor recordings take longer to transcribe and
are thus more expensive to process. Also the risk of transcription errors is
greater with poor recordings.
High quality recordings can save a
large project thousands of dollars. The tape recorder should be at least a few
feet from the microphone to encourage the interviewee to speak clearly and
project his voice. Individuals are sometimes more relaxed when they have
something in their hands while they talk, and sometimes a photograph, document,
or artifact in the hands of the
interviewee can be a useful tool. However, to maintain sound quality it is
generally a good idea to place the microphone and cable out of the
interviewee’s easy reach.
Relax and make every effort to put
the interviewee at ease. The tape recorder and microphone should be positioned
in a way that it is as unobtrusive as possible. Position the recorder so that
the microphone can register the voices of each participant, but in such a way
that the interviewer will be able to see and monitor the equipment. The
interviewer should already be very familiar with and have practiced working
with the recording equipment. Monitoring the equipment during the interview so
that there is a consistent sound level is very important. If at all possible,
someone should accompany the interviewer to operate the equipment, so that he
or she may focus on the actual interview rather than the technical aspects of
recording. Often the project plan and budget do not provide for a second person
to operate the recording equipment. In such instances, the interviewer will
have to assume these duties; however, the interviewer cannot give the time and
attention to maintaining proper levels and listening for noise which a machine
operator could. If the interviewer alone is operating the equipment, then it is
particularly important to use a tape machine that has a very good quality,
undetectable, automatic level control circuit. The automatic gain or automatic
level control circuits found in the least expensive machines are not
satisfactory and should be avoided. Only the very best automatic recording
level controls can work without an annoying fluctuation in background noise
between words. Come equipped with batteries, electrical adapters, extension
cords, and any other simple objects that might ultimately be critical to a
successful recording.
Occasionally,
the interviewer might want to explain the equipment to the interviewee before
beginning. As a rule, though, the less attention brought to the equipment the
better so as not to make the interviewee uncomfortable. The interviewer should
quickly check the indicator lights, and make a brief test recording to see if
the microphone is registering the voices and then adjust the sound level
appropriately. After making sure that the equipment is working properly, the
interview can begin. Each interview should begin with an appropriate, formal
introduction fully identifying the interviewee, the interviewer, and the date
and place of the interview in case the labeling information becomes separated
from the tape or lost. To avoid losing any of the dialogue, the interviewer
should keep track of the time and turn the tape over or replace the tape before
it runs out.
Some
of the above guidance related to the interview setting will not apply for
archeologists, ethnographers, and other professionals who frequently conduct interviews
while on site visits, in vehicles or outside walking around, or while the
interviewee is handling artifacts. These professionals sometimes need to weigh
the relative advantages of conducting interviews on site where the interviewees
can perhaps recall things more easily versus conducting the interviews away
from their immediate surroundings where they might feel greater freedom to
express themselves. However, the recommendations about becoming familiar with
the equipment, conducting a recording level test, and monitoring the recording
indicators remain valid no matter where the interview occurs.
Good
questioning techniques tend to generate information that is as unbiased,
accurate, and as complete as possible. Consider the first question carefully
for it can help set the tone for the entire interview. The first question
should be neutral, clear, and designed to put the interviewee at ease. A simple
question about the interviewee’s background or position is often a good way to
start.
As noted earlier, the interviewer
should have a very clear idea of the topics to be covered
with
this particular individual. Having already prepared a list of topics or
questions helps the interviewer ask questions in a logical sequence without
worrying about occasionally skipping around. It also helps ensure that all the
most important questions of that particular individual are addressed.
Interviewers who have done sufficient background research before their
interviews will already have some of this basic information. As the
interviewers complete additional interviews on a particular subject, their
knowledge of the subject matter will grow, and they will be able to determine
if the information being gathered is consistent from one interview to the next
(and if not, why not).
Listening carefully to what the
interviewee says is just as important as asking the questions. Follow-up
questions should "flow" from the initial one and follow in a logical
sequence. This order will often change as the interview progresses.
Occasionally, an interviewer will realize that a question he or she planned to
ask is inappropriate, has already been answered, or is even impossible to
answer, and will simply drop that particular question. Particularly with a list
of prepared questions, there is the risk that the interviewer will move on to
the next question on the list rather than asking a question that follows up on
what the interviewee has just said. As a result, important information can be
lost. The interviewer should as much as possible strive to keep to the overall
objectives and adhere to the general outline of topics or questions. If the
interviewee begins discussing information that is not relevant, tactfully steer
him back to the subject. Interviewers sometimes use maps, photographs, and
artifacts to help the interviewee recall information.
The
interviewer should avoid interrupting the interviewee. The silence created when
the interviewee pauses can be valuable. Although a long pause can sometimes
feel awkward, it may signify that the interviewee is thinking of additional
information. Give the interviewee plenty of time to answer the questions, and
resist the temptation to jump in and help. If the interviewee continues to
hesitate, the interviewer can try rephrasing the question but should never try
to answer the question. One of the marks of experienced interviewers is how
little they are heard on the tape. This often means not adding other details to
the interviewee's account no matter how familiar the interviewee with the
subject. As a rule, interviews should
remain neutral and avoid offering their own opinions on the subject of the
interview. As Barbara Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan observe in their short Guide to Oral History Interviews, “The
goal in an oral history is to collect long paragraphs of answers from well
focused, clearly stated, open-ended, neutral questions.”[4]
The interviewer is responsible for guiding the interview and should be able to
judge when a particular topic is exhausted and it is time to go on to the next
question. The ability to skillfully guide an interview can be refined with
experience.
Again, it is important to ask follow-up questions to elicit further
details or to clarify a particular point. If other questions come to the
interviewer while listening to the interviewee, most often it is best to jot
them down and ask them later rather than interrupting the flow of the
interview. It is also helpful to develop a list of the proper names that come
up during the interview. At the end of the interview ask the interviewee to
review the list to check the spelling.
This list will be useful to the transcriber later on.
Review
all questions to ensure that they are neutral and appropriate. Most often, it
is best to start with the most general open-ended questions possible and follow
up with more specific questions based on the interviewee’s responses. Construct
the appropriate mix of open-ended questions that encourage the interviewee to
talk freely and closed questions to get specific pieces of information.
Open-ended questions often begin with the following expressions: “Describe…,”
“Explain…,” and “Tell me about…” Closed questions usually elicit a one word or
phrase response, such as a simple “yes” or “no.” They provide specific details,
but generally do not promote spontaneous discussion. Avoid questions that are
complex and have many parts. These can be difficult for the interviewee to
follow and respond to. Encourage the interviewee to be as specific as possible.
When appropriate, ask for concrete illustrations and examples. This will add
color and depth to the material collected in the interview.
Being a good listener is the hallmark
of a good interviewer. Being a good listener enables the interviewer to ask
important follow-up questions and to seek clarification when necessary. The
interviewer should avoid leading questions. The most obvious examples are
questions that begin with “Don’t you think that…?” or “Would you agree that …?” The interviewer
should also avoid using jargon or acronyms. If the interviewee uses jargon or
acronyms, ask for explanations or translations.
At the end of the interview, give the interviewee the opportunity to add
information that has not already been covered or to discuss something he or she
was waiting to be asked.
After
the session ends, let the interviewee know how the interviewer can be contacted
and if possible explain how and when the interviewee will be receiving a copy
of the tape or transcript. It is often a good idea to continue chatting with
the interviewee briefly after the interview to maintain the rapport and
reaffirm that their time has been valuable. Interviewees who have had a
positive interview experience are understandably more likely to help convince
others to participate in the project. Finally if both parties have not signed a
legal release or deed of gift form before beginning the interview, make sure
this is done before leaving the session. Legal release and deed of gift issues
will be discussed further in Chapter VI.
Immediately
after the interview, label all tapes with the names of the interviewer and
interviewee, date, and place. If there is more than one tape, number each one
on the label and number each tape in relation to the others. For example, if
the interview was lengthy and resulted in five tapes, number each as 1 of 5, 2
of 5, etc. If using cassette tapes, pop the two small plastic tabs on each tape
so that no one can record over it by accident. The tape box label should be
filled in with the following information: the names of the interviewee and
interviewer, the interview date and location, and the cassette tape or reel
number. The tape speed, make and model of the tape recorder can also be noted
if desired. Make a properly labeled duplicate as soon as possible to use as a
working copy, and store the original separately in a safe place, preferably at
a different location.
Be
sure to fill out an “interview log sheet” for each interview as soon as
possible. The log sheet provides information on the interviewee, a history of
the interview including why it was done, the date and location of the
interview, and a rough index to the contents of the tape. If the tape is to be
transcribed, the log sheet will provide the transcriber with such basic
information as names of people and places, etc. If the tape is not transcribed,
the log sheet may be the major reference tool for the interview. A sample
“interview log sheet” can be found at Appendix A.
Finally,
send a thank you note to the interviewee. A note is a small but important way
of acknowledging that the interviewee has given his or her time, shared their
expertise and often made an emotional investment. If for some reason the
release was not signed at the time of the interview, this is a good time to
mail the form to interviewee with a request for his or her signature. Including
a stamped pre-addressed envelope will help encourage return of the form.
IV.
HANDLING ORAL HISTORY ARCHIVES
Oral history
recordings are perishable resources that will quickly disappear if not handled
correctly. Taking the appropriate measures to preserve interview recordings and
transcripts is a critical step in any oral history project. Reel-to-reel tapes
typically have a life span of 30 years or less. Cassette tape recordings and
videotapes are even less stable, with a much shorter shelf life. Digital recordings may prove to be the most
perishable medium of all. Digital recordings can become unusable in any one of
three ways: as the tapes or disks physically deteriorate; as the hardware on
which they are played becomes obsolete and unavailable; and as the proprietary
software on which they are based passes out of use. Even transcripts and other
textual documentation can be lost or damaged if they are filed incorrectly,
organized poorly, have inadequate environmental controls, or are mishandled in
other ways. Duplicating the original recording to a variety of media forms
increases the likelihood that the material will survive many years. If the
original recording is on a mini disc, a use copy on a standard audiotape, a
preservation copy on a reel-to-reel tape, a verbatim transcript, and an edited
transcript, the material will most likely be around for a very long time.
To
preserve oral history collections and make them available to future
generations, it is essential to observe established archival standards of
organization, storage, and description. Some of the procedures may initially
seem complicated, but they are actually fairly simple and logical. More important, they are proven methods for
managing archival collections effectively. Adopting these methods and
procedures can prevent a great deal of hard work from going to waste and
priceless information from being lost forever.
Think in terms
of collections –not individual
interviews. Do not handle individual
interviews as separate objects, but rather treat them as parts of larger sets
or collections of interviews. Each collection should represent the work of a
single oral history project. Collections produced by different projects should
never be merged or inter-filed.
The materials in each archival collection should be
arranged hierarchically. Collections are usually broken down into smaller
groups, called “series.” Series may be broken down further into “subseries” and
then into file units. File units consist
of individual items or documents. The hierarchical arrangement provides
intellectual control over archival collections, makes it easier to manage
collections, and ultimately can help preserve the materials. Most important,
hierarchical arrangement makes it possible to do archival reference.
Researchers cannot efficiently and effectively access collections unless they
are arranged hierarchically.
Specific
arrangement patterns may vary according to the unique characteristics of
individual collections, but the following format could be used in most cases.
First, divide each collection into series,
based on the physical type of material (magnetic sound recording tapes,
videotapes, paper files, compact disks, etc.), or based on the content or the
nature of the documents. Here is how a
series breakdown (or “hierarchy”) of a single oral history collection might
look:
·
SERIES
I: Sound Recordings
(cassette tapes, mini discs, reel-to-reel magnetic tape master recordings of
interviews)
·
SERIES
II: Videotape Recordings
·
SERIES
III: Transcripts (paper
transcripts of interviews)
·
SERIES
IV: Project Files (supporting documentation
compiled for each interview or for the project as a whole, such as signed
release forms, correspondence with interviewees, lists of questions,
biographical data sheets on interviewees, and background notes).
It is not necessary to adhere strictly to the example given above. Most collections, for
example, probably would not include videotape recordings. Some may have Digital Analog Tapes (DAT) instead of or in addition to magnetic tapes. Some may include photographs. And some parks might prefer to combine the textual materials (i.e., transcripts and project files) into a single series.
In
addition, if an oral history project is carried out in phases or by teams that
focused on different topics, it might be appropriate to base the series
organization on the phase or topic – especially if attempting to inter-file the
materials would create problems. For example, if an oral history project on
Native Americans were conducted with members of various tribes, the park may
chose to organize the collection into series by tribe. If a project on a park’s
history began with a series of chronologically-arranged interviews about its
early years but later shifted to a series of topically-arranged interviews
about the recent years, the difference in both subject matter and arrangement
scheme could warrant handling each of those phases as separate series. If a
collection is divided into series according to phase or topic, however,
consider breaking each of those series down into sub series based on physical
type of material, as shown above.
Finally, it may be unnecessary to organize unusually small collections
into series. Collections of only three or four interviews may be arranged at
the file unit level.
Second, once the collection has been arranged
into series (and subseries, if necessary), arrange the individual tapes or
files in each series or subseries. File or tape arrangement within series or
subseries is at the discretion of the park, and arrangement may vary from
collection to collection. Materials in each series may be arranged
alphabetically by name of interviewee, chronologically by date of interview, or
numerically (with numbers representing the order in which the interviews were
conducted or some other numerical code that that park wishes to adopt). Within
each collection, however, it may be useful to follow the same arrangement
scheme for each series. For example, if the tapes are arranged according to a
certain numerical code, arrange the transcripts in the same way.
As
noted, reel-to-reel analog tapes are the preferred archival medium for oral
history recordings. Archival sound
recordings of oral history interviews should be kept on mastering grade,
tensilized, 1.5 mil polyester analog reel-to-reel tapes, if at all possible.
When properly stored, such tapes can last for up to 30 years. Digital
recordings and cassette tapes are not reliable for long-term preservation.
Store
reel-to-reel tapes “tails out.” This means that after recording, the tape is
not rewound but stored as is. Rapid rewinding can create uneven tension, which
can cause damage over time. Do not rewind tapes until immediately before
playing them. If a tape is wound unevenly, with edges sticking out, then rewind
it at playback speed until each layer is properly aligned.
Tapes
should be played approximately every three years to prevent “bleed-through” or
“print-through” of voices from one layer of the tape to other layers, which can
cause echoing. Inspect sample tapes
periodically and copy them onto new tapes if there are signs of deterioration.
Parks should be especially careful about inspecting tapes that are more than
ten years old and be prepared to reformat entire collections to ensure
long-term preservation. Store each reel in an archival quality, acid-free tape
box. Larger reels (10 inches in diameter) should be stored in boxes with
supports for the hubs. Each box should be labeled in pencil and shelved
vertically.
Tapes
will last longer if kept under relatively constant temperature and humidity.
Archival standards call for 65 degrees maximum temperature, and a set point of
35 percent relative humidity, plus-or-minus 5 percent.
·
Do
not expose tapes to ultraviolet radiation or to strong magnetic fields (which
can be given off by electric motors, magnets, loudspeakers, and similar types
of equipment).
·
Install
air conditioning filters and replace them regularly to help maintain a
dust-free environment; clean tape heads on recording equipment to prevent tapes
from being damaged; wear no-lint white cotton gloves when handling tapes; and
avoid touching the playing surface of tapes.
·
Return
tapes to their containers immediately after use.
·
Prohibit
eating, drinking, or smoking in areas where tapes are housed.
The
master or archival copy of the tape should be managed as part of the park’s
museum collection, and should NEVER be used for research. As soon as possible
after the interview, make one or more copies of the tape and use these as
reference copies. Only reference copies – not the master – should be used for
making transcripts or made available to researchers. Reference copies need not
be managed as part of the museum collection or kept on reel-to-reel tape. For
more information about tape preservation, storage, duplication, and handling,
see “Preservation of Magnetic Media,” National Park Service Conserve O Gram, July 1993, No. 19/8,
and “Care of Archival Digital and Magnetic Media,” National Park Service Conserve O Gram, September 1996, No.
19/20. These technical leaflets are available on the Museum Management Program
web site at www.cr.nps.gov/museum/publications/index.htm.
Supporting materials such as photographs, maps,
correspondence, and copies of the legal releases should not be stored in the
same boxes with magnetic tapes. They should be placed in acid-free folders,
arranged by file unit, and stored in acid-free boxes. For preservation purposes
and for ease of retrieval, paper materials should be filed separately from
tapes (as outlined in the section on “Arrangement,” above). It is unnecessary
to put each individual document into its own folder; rather, all documents for
a given file unit should be placed into the same folder. File units containing
a large number of documents may be broken up into multiple folders, but all of
the folders would still be considered one file unit.
Remove
all staples, paper clips, rubber bands, and other fasteners from documents
before putting them into folders. Place damaged, fragile, or acidic documents
into polyester sleeves. “Preservation
copying” of damaged, fragile, or acidic documents onto acid-free paper is
permissible, provided the document has no intrinsic value, after which the
originals may be discarded. (NOTE: it is not necessary to follow
de-accessioning procedures when discarding originals after preservation copies
have been made). Label all folders with pencil, but do not label individual
documents. Place all folders into acid-free, archival quality document boxes.
Environmental
conditions for paper materials are not quite as strict as for magnetic
tapes. Maintain relatively constant
conditions of no more than 70 degrees, with a relative humidity between 30 and
50 percent. Do not store paper records in wooden filing cabinets or in metal
filing cabinets that are susceptible to rust. Do not place archival material in
rooms with carpets or with particle board, masonite, or plywood furniture
subject to off-gassing, or use strong cleaning agents (such as ammonia or
bleach) that could give off damaging fumes. Do not expose paper records to excessive
light levels, and do not place boxes of documents on the floor or within 18
inches of light fixtures, pipes, or sprinkler heads. For more information about
handling paper documents, see “Storing Archival Paper-Based Materials,”
National Park Service Conserve O Gram,
September 1996, No. 19/15.
Cataloging in
the Automated National Catalog System (ANCS+)
Original
oral history collections that are managed as part of the park’s museum
collection should be cataloged in the Service’s Automated National Catalog
System (ANCS+). Catalog at the collection level when making entries into the
ANCS+ Collection Management Module. Individual oral history interviews should
not be cataloged in the Collections Management Module but may be listed in the
Supplement Module or described in detail in the Archives Module (see below).
When
cataloging in the Collection Management Module, only enter descriptions of
entire oral history collections. Each collection should be assigned a single
catalog number, no matter how many interviews it contains. Then enter general
information about the collection as a whole – such as the total volume of the
collection, a general description of the topics covered in the interviews, a
listing of the collection’s individual series, and a brief explanation of when
and how the oral history project was conducted. Remember that the description
in the Collection Management Module should only provide a brief overview of the
entire collection.
Parks
have the option of using the Collection Management Module to list individual
interviews by pressing the “Supplemental Module” button and selecting
“Container List.” This will be a box-by-box listing of folder titles or names
of interviewees, however, not a full catalog entry. For further information on
how to enter collection-level archival entries in the Collection Management
Module, see the Field Help Notes in the ANCS+ program, or the ANCS+ User
Manual.
Use the ANCS+ Archives Module for detailed
information about series, subseries, and individual interviews. After entering
the collection level data in the Collections Management Module, press the “Send
to Archives” button to copy the entry over to the Archives Module. Then, in the
Archives Module, enter descriptions of individual series and subseries, as necessary,
and descriptions of individual file units or items, if desired. By entering this information into the
Archives Module, everything will be linked, hierarchically, to the
collection-level entry in the Collections Management Module. This will ensure
intellectual control over the collection and enhance accessibility.
Generally, the best strategy is to
provide general overviews of each of the series (i.e., sound recordings,
transcripts, project files). Then, if
the tapes or files are arranged the same way in each of the series – for
example, alphabetically by name of interviewee – select one series to include
file-by-file descriptions providing detailed information about each interview.
For more information on how to enter series-level, sub series-level, and
file-level descriptions in the ANCS+ Archives Module, see the Field Help Notes
in the ANCS+ program, or the ANCS+ User Manual.
Simply
revise existing catalog entries as additional interviews are completed for
on-going projects. If new interviews are conducted for on-going oral history
projects that are already cataloged into ANCS+, it is inappropriate to create
new catalog entries in the Collection Management Module for those interviews.
Instead, just modify the existing catalog entry to reflect the change in volume
and the addition of any new topics. In most cases, however, it is preferable to
wait until a project has been completed before cataloging it.
Finally,
it is important to consult a park, regional, or National Park Service records
officer to determine the status of all tapes, transcripts, and other materials
related to oral history interviews and projects that are conducted by park
staff or by volunteers and contractors as official park assignments. If an oral
history interview or project was conducted as an official activity of the
National Park Service involving the expenditure of Federal funds – whether it
was undertaken by Service employees or by contractors – the tapes and all
related materials become Federal records, as defined by the Federal Records
Act, as amended (44 USC 2901 et seq.). The recordings, transcripts, and
associated documentation must be managed in accordance with Director’s Order 19: Records Management. However, if the interview
recording or interview collection was produced outside the Federal government
and acquired by or donated to the National Park Service, the materials are not
Federal records. These recordings and supporting documentation should be
incorporated into and managed as part of the National Park Service’s museum
system. Oral history materials are not currently listed on the Service’s
Records Disposition schedule, and the National Archives and Records
Administration has not yet made a formal determination as to their disposition
status. The National Park Service’s Museum Management Program will be
developing further guidance. In the interim, the best approach is to treat the
original recordings and related materials as permanent records.
V.
PROCESSING AND USING ORAL HISTORY
The true value of recorded oral history
is determined by how well it is preserved, processed, and made accessible to
researchers. The information contained in the interviews becomes valuable only
through use. If an interview tape is stored in a desk drawer and forgotten,
eventually the information will be lost. Parks should make every effort to
process the interviews as thoroughly and quickly as possible and then to place
them in a park or other archives where they can be made available to
researchers. Processing includes the following stages: cataloging (discussed in
the previous chapter), indexing, transcription, and editing. Each tape should
be logged in on a “Log of Activity” form that tracks all the operations to be
performed on it from the recording to the final typing and distribution of the
transcript. A sample “Log of Activity” form can be found in Appendix A.
Transcription is
the process of converting the oral interview into a typescript. It is the
transfer of information from an audio recording into a verbatim written or
typewritten copy. A transcript is a
reflection of the spoken word, not the written word. The recording remains the
primary source material. Tape transcription can be a tedious, time-consuming,
and expensive process. It can take as much as five to eight hours to transcribe
each hour of audiotape. However, the transcription process is very important
for several reasons. The sound quality of tape recordings can deteriorate over
time and transcription ensures that a written record of the interviews will be
preserved over the long term. Also
transcription allows both the interviewer and interviewee the opportunity to
review the transcript and make corrections, a process that ultimately improves
the quality and accuracy of the interview. Researchers find transcripts much
easier to use than audiotapes. Researchers will be reluctant to listen to hours
of tapes without some indication of what they contain. Finally, a well-packaged
and professionally produced transcription is a highly visible product of the
program useful for justifying further expenditures.
When
transcription is not possible, it is a good idea at a minimum to produce an
abstract or index. A simple way to index tape is to replay it and make notes on
the content. A tape index can be done by using a stopwatch to record the time
elapsed on each side of the tape as a new subject is introduced. The notes and
index can become a useful finding aid for the collection.
If
you decide to produce transcripts, look for someone who has had experience
transcribing tapes, not just a skilled typist, to do the work. Historians with
the Washington office, regional offices, local universities, and historical
societies can help in locating experienced oral history transcribers. If
someone without experience such as a volunteer will be transcribing the tapes,
some basic training will be necessary. Ask the transcriber to provide each
transcript in electronic form (on a computer disk or as an e-mail attachment)
to make the editing process easier. It is also a good idea to provide the
transcriber with a word list containing the proper names and places noted
during the interview to help avoid errors and gaps. This simple task can save
considerable time and effort later on in the editing process.
There
is some debate concerning what to include and what to leave out in the
transcription process and what form the transcripts should take. It is
important to address some of these issues early on and standardize your
approach. The Oral History Association can provide the most current and
commonly accepted guidance and information about transcription, including the
new computer voice recognition systems. Other good, reliable sources concerning
transcription are Transcribing and
Editing Oral History (1977) by Willa K. Baum and The Tape-Recorded Interview: A Manual for Field Workers in Folklore and
Oral History (1995) by Edward D. Ives.
Although specific approaches to
transcription can differ, there are some widely accepted general guidelines for
transcribing tapes.
·
Do a
cover page with the basic information about the interview, to include the names
of interviewer and interviewee, name of project, and date of interview.
·
Do
not clean up wording or grammar.
·
Do
not include false starts unless they add meaning. However, if the transcript will be used for
tape editing to produce an audiovisual presentation, include everything.
·
Omit
the interviewer’s supportive sounds such as “I see,” “Uh huh,” and crutch words
such as “you know”, unless they add meaning or convey the flavor of the speech
patterns. (Again, if the purpose is tape editing, retain these.)
·
Double
space the typescript and provide adequate margins to leave room for editing.
·
Identify
each speaker either by using their full last names, abbreviations, or by a
clearly identified “Q” and “A”.
·
Note
the status of the tape. For example, indicate “interruption in tape,” “end of
side one,” or “end of interview.”
·
Begin
each page of the typescript by identifying the speaker either by name (or by a
“Q” or “A”), even if it is a continuation of the previous page.
·
Include
both the interviewer’s questions and the interviewee’s answers.
·
Leave
a blank space for an word or phrase that is unclear. The interviewer or
interviewee may fill this in later.
·
If
the spelling of a proper name is unclear, spell the name phonetically and
indicate in parenthesis “phonetic”.
·
Laughter
and significant gestures may be indicated in brackets. (But do this sparingly.)
If someone other than the interviewer will
be transcribing the tape, even when using a professional transcriber, consider
providing some general written guidelines concerning methodology (e.g. how to
handle false starts, spellings, pauses). If using an untrained volunteer, you
will need to provide even more detailed and precise guidance. For transcription
of another language, see Appendix E.
The goal of
transcription is to produce as accurate a representation of the interview as
possible while omitting obviously extraneous sounds, such as street noise or a
ringing telephone. However, editing is
an important step in making sense of the spoken word. People do not always
speak in complete sentences with their thoughts clearly organized and stated.
Words can sometimes sound alike resulting in errors or distorted meaning.
Therefore, the interviewer should always conduct what is sometimes called an
“audio edit,” checking the transcript against the audio recording. This allows
the interviewer to correct any errors that the transcriber might have made,
fill in gaps, and make sure nothing was omitted. As Historian Donald Ritchie
observed, the tape is what was said, while the edited transcript represents the
intended meaning of what was said.[5]
Provide the edited copy for research use, but also retain a copy of the
unedited verbatim transcript in the file for reference.
Here
are some basic guidelines for editing an interview tape transcript.
·
Edit
for style and clarity rather than content
·
Fill
in any blanks left by the transcriber.
·
Never
edit so extensively as to modify the facts or the general impression of the
interview, except to remove restricted material.
·
Remove
any false starts that remain in the transcript.
·
Correct
spelling and punctuation errors.
·
Correct
grammar only when the corrections help clarify ambiguities or
misstatements.
·
Remove
any restricted sections. Note on the transcript that the material was removed.
More
in-depth editing, for publication purposes for example, might involve deleting
entire words or sections of the tape in order to make the transcript read more
easily. Sometimes words are added in
brackets to clarify meaning or provide additional information. Explanatory
footnotes with additional information may be added when appropriate.
Interviewees
should have the opportunity to review the edited transcripts before the
transcripts are distributed or published to make sure that they agree with the
changes and to address any points that still need clarification. This step can
significantly improve the accuracy and detail of the interview. Send the
transcript with a cover letter stating that if it is not returned by the
prescribed time, the editor will assume approval and complete the processing.
After the editing and review are complete, the transcript should be put in
final form. Again, use of a computer disk and word processor makes this process
easier. The final version of the transcript should include a title page, an
interview log sheet, a table of contents, a statement of any restrictions or
rules for researchers if applicable, photographs or any other illustrative
matter, and if possible, an index of names and events mentioned in the
interview. As a courtesy and a good public relations measure, provide the
interviewee with a final copy of the transcript.
Parks
have a responsibility to make the product available to researchers. They do
this by publicizing the collection, making it available to researchers, and
providing users with finding aids and reference guides to the collection. An
ora1 history collection can be shared with researchers and the general public
in several ways, for example through exhibits, articles, books, web sites, and
audio centers. Oral history tapes and transcripts can support a wide range of
different products.
In addition to listing interviews in
ANCS+ as discussed in the previous chapters, parks can report collections of
ten or more interviews to the Library of Congress for inclusion in the National Union Catalog of Manuscript
Collections. A park might consider submitting press releases or articles to
newspapers and magazines that describe its oral history program, the program’s
objectives and activities, as well as any particularly interesting aspects of
the program. Park staff might write a
column about their oral history program or project for their park newsletter or
a local newspaper. A large, well-managed oral history program could result in a
book, which might be published by the park or its cooperating association. The
Internet is an excellent vehicle for publicizing oral history collections and
making tape recordings and full-text versions of tape transcripts available to
a broad audience.
Users of oral
history, whether park staff or outside researchers, should be provided with
some assistance in the form of reference guides to the contents of the tapes,
transcripts and collection as a whole. There are two levels at which guides
should be provided: the level of the individual interview and the level of the
collection as a whole. There are also progressively more detailed steps in
gaining intellectual control over the information contained in interviews. Park
staff should strive to accomplish as many of those steps as they can.
Step 1: If no transcript is produced, the
completed interview log sheet must serve as the basic guide for that interview -- the absolute
minimum requirement for processing an interview.
Step 2: If a transcript has been
produced, it should have a table of contents that directs the user to the
proper page.
Step 3: An index to the transcript traces
significant comments on people, places, events, structures, etc. There are
various guides, such as The Chicago
Manual of Style, 15th ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 2003), and computer software packages available to help develop an
index.
The park needs to make sure that
each researcher using the interview material understands his or her
responsibilities. Accommodating researchers involves a certain amount of staff
time and scheduling, so it is appropriate to restrict use of the collection to
serious research. Researchers should be required to complete and sign a form
agreeing to comply with all the specified rules and regulations. (See Appendix
D) The park should be able to provide a set schedule when a researcher may use
the collection or allow access by appointment.
Oral History as Research Material
After the interview is made available to
researchers, they too have certain responsibilities, specifically in how they
use that material. A researcher should treat oral history with the same level
of skepticism as any other source material. While documents can be incomplete,
inaccurate, and deceiving, so can oral history. Oral history is as reliable or
unreliable as any other research material and generally should not stand alone
as the researcher’s only source. As with textual materials, it should
constantly be tested against other evidence. Oral evidence should meet the same
standard of being credible and verifiable as written evidence. Some interviewee
comments can be self-serving or inaccurate, and some interviewers can be too
timid or polite to ask probing questions.
Memories can be faulty and sometimes interviewees confuse dates,
telescope time, rearrange their memories; they forget names, places and similar
details. Memories dim, and interviewees tend to remember what they believe is
important, not necessarily what the interviewer believes is important. Each
interviewee offers a unique perspective and speaks from his or her own point of
view.
When
conducting an oral history project, it is helpful to collect as many
perspectives as possible and to weigh personal accounts against each other. The
collected stories from a group can reinforce each other and reveal common
threads. In evaluating the credibility of the interviewees, consider the
following questions: Were they in a position to experience events firsthand or
simply passing on second hand information?
What biases might have shaped their perceptions? What subsequent events might have caused them
to rethink or reinterpret their past?
How closely does their account agree with other documentary evidence
from the period, and how do they explain any discrepancies? Where does an
interviewee’s account correspond to other interviewees, and where do they differ?
Again,
the interview is not truly complete until it has been processed and made
available to researchers. Both collection managers and researchers must be
fully aware of their responsibilities in handling this material and using it as
source material.
VI.
ETHICS
AND LEGALITIES
Two
critical aspects of every oral history interview or project go well beyond the
content or methodology. These are the fundamental ethical and legal
considerations surrounding the interview process and product or products.
In conducting and using oral history there are two principal
ethical concerns. One is a concern for the interview process - the methodology.
The second is a concern for the person – the rights, privacy and dignity of the
interviewee. The interviewer must always weigh the concern for professional
research methodology against concern for the person being interviewed. The
ethical concern for the person being interviewed should always out-weigh
concern for the interview process. The Oral History Association provides
excellent guidelines on ethical behavior. For more information, see its Evaluation Guidelines and its Principles and Standards of the Oral History
Association, Pamphlet Number 3 (Rev. ed. September 2000).
The most important ethical
consideration is the interviewer’s obligation to be open and honest with the
interviewee at all times. Before the interview, the interviewer must carefully
explain to the interviewee the purpose of the interview, his rights in the
interviewing process, the eventual disposition of the tape and the transcript,
the immediate planned use of the interview, and the wide range of potential
future uses. The interviewer should explain that the interviewee will be asked
to sign a legal release and that the interview will be kept confidential to the
extent permitted by law until this is done. They should never make any commitments that they might not be able to honor,
such as promising publication or exemption from requests submitted under the
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), Title 5 U.S. Code, Section 552.
Respect each individual's right to
privacy. This is not only an ethical consideration but a legal one as well, as
discussed later in this chapter. When requesting an interview, the interviewer
is asking the interviewee to share his or her personal reflections and
perspectives and to sacrifice some degree of privacy. It is important to
recognize that participation in an interview and the resulting product can
sometimes make the interviewee vulnerable, particularly if the interview
addresses sensitive or controversial subjects. The individual must weigh the
risks of participating in the interview against the potential benefits. Without
candid, reliable information about the purpose and the planned and potential
uses of the interview, the interviewee simply cannot evaluate those risks
effectively. Because of these privacy concerns, in some instances, the
interviewers might need to bring certain risks to the attention of the
interviewees if they do not perceive them for themselves.
If the interviewee perceives personal
risk, the interviewer should to the extent possible adjust the interview
process to alleviate his concerns. This may require adding a restriction clause
in the release form or an agreement either to delete certain sections or avoid
certain topics or questions. However, be sure that the interviewee understands
that any restrictions are unlikely to withstand a Freedom of Information Act
request. Because even minor restrictions limit and complicate future use of the
material by Park Service staff or outside researchers, interviewers should
avoid restriction clauses whenever possible. When dealing with a particularly
difficult or traumatic event or issue, raise challenging questions, give the
interviewee the opportunity to respond, but also respect his or her right to
refuse to discuss certain subjects or restrict access.
As noted, the second ethical concern
relates to the purpose of the interview and the methodology – the way the
interviewer conducts the interview. Interviewers have a responsibility to
uphold the highest professional standards of their various disciplines and
professions. They should strive to record information of lasting value and make
that information accessible to researchers. Oral history, observed the Oral
History Association, “should be conducted in a spirit of critical inquiry and
social responsibility and with a recognition of the interactive and subjective
nature of the enterprise.”[6]
This statement of ethical principle involves several considerations. First, the interviewee must be aware that an
oral history interview is being conducted and that it is being recorded. It
should be conducted in accordance with any stipulations previously agreed upon.
Also, the process and methodology as designed and implemented should minimize
the interviewer's influence in the interview. The interviewer should never
allow his judgment or opinions to slant or color the interview in any way.
The National Park Service and its
representatives have a responsibility always to use the highest ethical
standards in creating and preserving oral history interviews. They also have a
responsibility to make the interviews known and available for research and to
ensure compliance with the letter and spirit of any agreement made with the
interviewee.
Legal
Considerations
The interviewer
has certain legal as well as ethical responsibilities, especially when
representing a federal agency such as the National Park Service. Occasionally
the contents of a taped interview can become the source of confusion or
conflict. Access to the interview tapes and transcripts must be carefully
balanced with the intellectual property rights and the privacy rights of both
the interviewer and interviewee. For a fuller discussion of the legal
considerations, see John A. Neuenschwander’s excellent pamphlet, Oral History and the Law.[7]
Legal issues related to privacy are directly related to
concerns about defamation and libel. Generally, privacy issues are handled much
in the same way as libel, but there are some differences. In privacy cases,
truth is not an absolute defense as it is in libel cases. Invasion of privacy
involves the following four causes of action: intrusion into one’s private
affairs; disclosure of intimate or embarrassing private facts; the commercial
use of an individual’s name or likeness without permission; and placing someone
in a “false light” in the public view. False light involves making a statement
or representation that is not defamatory or libelous, but that is also not
true. If, for example, the interviewee
relates a non-libelous story about a third party that would give the public a
false impression about that third person, the interviewee may have violated
that person’s privacy by putting him or her “in false light.”
The
right of privacy focuses on the mental harm inflicted. A right of privacy claim must have three
elements: the use of one’s name or image in an identifiable manner, without
consent, and for the benefit of the defendant.
Generally, only the person who is injured may assert a claim, and the
plaintiff must be living.
The issue of
copyright or ownership of the interview tape and transcript is critical and
must be adequately addressed in the interview process. Under federal copyright
law, anyone whose words are recorded or reproduced retains copyright over the
recording and the resulting transcript.
Copyright is defined as the rights granted by law that give the owner of
an original creative work the ability to prevent others from using the work
without the owner’s permission.
Copyright begins the moment an original work is created, or in the case
of an oral history interview – as soon as the interviewee stops talking. The
interviewee - and often the interviewer as well - are usually deemed to be the
author or creator of the taped interview and hold the copyright. The park or
program responsible for the oral history project must at some point secure the
transfer of the interviewee’s, and if applicable the interviewer’s copyright
interest, to the federal government, the National Park Service, or the park by
means of a legal release or deed of gift.
The
Copyright Act of 1976, as amended by the Sonny Bono Copyright Extension Act and
the Digital Millennium Copyright Act in 1998, is a federal statute that
provides exclusive copyright protection for original works of authorship
created after January 1, 1978. Under the 1976 Act, copyright protection is
given automatically to original works that are expressed in a fixed, tangible
medium. It does not extend to ideas, procedures, facts, processes, concepts,
principles, or discoveries. Works of authorship protected by copyright include
literary works, photographs, maps, sculpture, architectural plans, audiovisual
works, musical works, sound recordings such as tape recordings, and
architectural works (e.g. buildings). Unpublished works automatically qualify
for copyright protection provided they are original and fixed in a tangible
medium of expression.
Copyright conveys certain legal
rights. The copyright owner has the exclusive
right to reproduce the work, distribute it to the public, prepare derivative
works, display the work, and perform the work publicly. For copyright purposes, it is important to
identify the author. Often the sole
copyright owner is the creator or the author of the work. When a work is a
“joint work” prepared by two or more authors with the intent to merge their
contributions into a single product, as is often the case with an oral history
interview, the authors share copyright ownership. If an employee prepared the
work within the scope of his or her employment (a “work for hire”), the
employer owns the copyright. For Commissioned Works, the independent contractor
commissioned to create a work is the initial owner of copyright unless there is
a written, signed agreement that the work is a “work for hire” and that
it fits into one of nine categories enumerated by statute. However, federal
employees cannot create copyright and have no copyright interest in any work
that they produce as part of their official duties. As a federal agency, the
National Park Service does not hold copyright in the oral histories that its
employees produce. As soon as the
interviewee transfers his or her copyright to the park, the Park Service, or
the federal government, the interview can be released to the “public domain”
and can be used by others without obtaining permission from the author or his
heirs.
However,
if the interviewer is a contractor the situation is a bit more complex. Independent contractors with grants,
agreements, or contracts with the federal government retain copyright for the
works they create unless the terms of their contract, agreement, statutes or
regulations stipulate otherwise. There are two ways for an interviewer who is
an independent contractor or a volunteer to convey copyright. Before the
interview, they can sign a “work for hire” agreement that makes the employer
the author or they can sign an agreement in which they transfer or “assign”
copyright to the federal government. Their contract must either stipulate that
copyright belongs to the federal government or include the phrase “this is a
work for hire.”
How long does copyright last? For works created during or after 1978,
copyright is protected until 70 years after the death of the creator. For works for hire or anonymous or pseudonymous
authors, copyright extends 95 years from publication or 120 years from
creation, whichever is shorter. For items published before 1978 the law is
different. Any work published before 1923 is in the public domain. Works
published from 1923-1963 are also in the public domain if the copyright was
never renewed. However, if the copyright was renewed, protection extends for 95
years from publication. With works published from 1964-1977, copyright extends
95 years from publication.
For works
created before January 1, 1978 but never published or registered, the copyright
is protected for the life of the creator, plus 70 years, or at least until
December 31, 2002, whichever is greater. If a work was created before January
1, 1978 and published between January 1, 1978, and December 31, 2002, copyright
is protected for the life of the creator plus 70 years or until December 31,
2047, whichever is greater.
Infringement
of copyright occurs when the copyrighted work is reproduced, distributed or
displayed to the public, or performed for the public without the permission of
the author or his heirs. Libraries and archives, however, may reproduce and
distribute a single copy of the work if there is no commercial motive, the
collections are open to the public or researchers, and the reproduction
includes a copyright notice. Copyright law provides a defense against copyright
infringement called “fair use.” Simply put, the “fair use” defense permits the
use of the copyrighted material for teaching and educational purposes,
scholarly research, and a few other very specific purposes.
As noted, to
minimize the risk of legal problems, oral history projects and programs must
use written agreements that specifically govern intellectual property rights
and ownership of the interview material. These agreements should be kept on
file for easy reference. Park Service staff should seek prior written
permission from the author or authors of the work [the interviewer(s) and
interviewee(s)], to avoid allegations of copyright infringement or privacy
violation claims. This written
permission provides a strong, effective defense against copyright infringement
or invasion of privacy.
Effective written agreements to
transfer rights and ownership can take several forms. A deed of gift agreement
can be used to transfer all rights and title to an interview. A different, but similar, legal vehicle for
conveying all rights and title is a contractual legal release agreement. Either a deed of gift or legal release
agreement should be signed at the time of the interview. When a Park Service employee is conducting
the interview, both the interviewer and interviewee should sign a legal
release. Appendix B contains a model legal release form. If the interviewer is
not a Federal employee (a contractor or volunteer for example), the interviewer
should execute a separate deed of gift with the Park Service using Form 10-830
(Rev. May 2003) “Deed of Gift” out of the National Park Service’s Museum Handbook, provided in Appendix C.
If the National Park Service is accepting or acquiring interview materials from
outside the Federal government, also use Form 10-830 in Appendix C.
The most desirable transfer is one in
which the interviewee assigns copyright to the National Park Service to use the
interview recording and related materials as it sees fit and to deposit it in
its collections. Depending on the nature and purpose of the oral history
project, you may want to ensure that nothing in the transfer instrument
precludes use of part or all of the interview material on the Internet or in
any other manner. In rare instances, the interviewees may retain copyright and
require that they or their heirs be consulted before the material is
released. In other instances, they may
assign copyright to the Park Service but stipulate that all or part of the
interview be closed for a period of time. However, the Park Service has no
clear legal authority to restrict public access and cannot guarantee its
ability to uphold such restrictions. Be candid with the interviewee about the
potential problems that could arise by attaching restrictions to the tape and
transcript. As noted earlier, it is wise to avoid attaching any provisions that
would restrict access to the interview if possible. More important, the
interviewer and interviewee need to discuss the copyright issue and agree on
the terms of the interview before the paperwork is signed and the interview
begins.
Freedom
of Information Act
The Freedom of Information Act makes most Federal records
available to the public and outlines the procedures that citizens must use to
gain access to these records. Certain categories of information such as
personnel files or trade secrets are exempt. Exemption 6 allows the federal
government to withhold all information about individuals in personnel and medical
files and similar files when disclosing such information would constitute an
unwarranted invasion of personal privacy. If a park accepts the donation of an
interview that carries with it restriction on access or photocopying, it is
doubtful that the park will be able to honor such a restriction if there is a
FOIA request for it. FOIA requests can supersede any restrictions placed on
tapes. The bottom line is that an interviewer can never guarantee the
confidentiality of an interview because of FOIA, and the interviewer has an
obligation to convey this risk to the interviewee.
There are
some other FOIA exemptions that might be relevant. For example, under the
National Historic Preservation Act, information concerning the character of
property that could endanger a site can be redacted. Under the Archeological
Resources Protection Act, information about the location of an archeological
site can be exempted when making the site known could endanger the site. The
Endangered Species Act also provides an exemption.
The law related to oral history
continues to evolve. Unless the circumstances are truly exceptional, parks
should avoid conducting interviews with interviewees who do not sign a legal
release or deed of gift form or who request restrictions. Restriction clauses
or the absence of the signed release can cause future problems for park staff
and will limit the usefulness of the interview material. When thorny questions
arise concerning copyright, privacy, libel, access, or other legal concerns, contact
the Department of the Interior’s Office of the Solicitor for advice.
CONCLUSION
Oral history has
been and will continue to be a very valuable resource for researchers within
and outside the National Park Service. It can be an exceptional tool for Service
professionals and others who seek to preserve and document cultural and
historical memory in the parks or in the Service itself. Moreover, as noted
earlier, oral history is directly linked to the Service’s mission of preserving
cultural and natural resources and educating the public about those resources.
Yet, for oral history to reach its full potential the interviews must be
planned, organized, conducted, processed, and managed in accordance with the
highest professional standards. Service professionals, contractors, and
volunteers must conduct their interviews and handle the resulting products with
the utmost concern for the legal and ethical issues involved and take all the
appropriate measures to preserve those products so that they are available to
researchers for many years to come.
APPENDIX A United
States Department of the Interior
National
Park Service
ORAL HISTORY
INTERVIEW LOG
Project Name
_________________________________
Interview
No._______ Page
_____ of ____ pages
Interviewee’s
Name_______________________________________________________
Address__________________________________________________ Telephone___________________ Date of
Birth_________________
Interviewer’s
Name _______________________________________________________
Address_________________________________________________________
Telephone___________________ Date of Birth_________________
Date/Place of
Interview
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _
Purpose of
Interview
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Type and Number
of Tapes ______________________ Speed
______
Transcribed? ____ Reference
Cassette copy made? ____ Edited?
_____
Release Form?
____ Distributed? _____
Translator
information (if applicable)
______________________________________________
Contents of
tape: (Include names and terms that may
need clarification during the transcription process; use additional sheets, if
necessary)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _
_____________________________________________________________________________
United States Department of the Interior
1.
All
legal title and property rights for said interview.
2.
All
rights, title, and interest in copyrights in said interview, and more
particularly, the exclusive rights of reproduction, distribution, and public
display.
I,
_________________________ (interviewee)
herein warrant that I have not assigned or in any manner encumbered or impaired
any of the aforementioned rights in my oral memoir. I hereby authorize the National Park Service
to record, transcribe, and edit the interview, and to use and re-use the
interview in whole or in part. I
understand that the National Park Service shall have no obligation to use the
interview. I further understand that I
am to receive no financial compensation for my participation in the
project.
_____________________________
_______________________ Interviewee Date
______________________________ ________________________
Interviewer, on behalf of the NPS Date
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FOR NPS USE ONLY
NATIONAL
PARK SERVICE ACCESSION NUMBER
DEED
OF GIFT
NAME
OF DONOR(S) TELEPHONE
NUMBER (Give Area Code)
ADDRESS (Number,
Street, City, State and Zip)
Whereas the National
Park Service is dedicated to the preservation and protection of objects
significant to the interpretation of the National Parks throughout the United
States,
I/We do hereby irrevocably and
unconditionally give, assign, and deliver to the National Park Service, for its
unrestricted use, all right, title, and interest in, to, and associated with
the item(s) listed below.
I/We do hereby irrevocably and
unconditionally give, assign, and deliver to the National Park Service, for its
unrestricted use, all copyright, trademark, and related rights and interest in,
to, and associated with the item(s) listed below.
I/We certify that I/we
hold free and clear title to the subject property and any copyright, trademark,
and related rights an interest in, to, and associated with the subject
property, and that I/we may dispose of it in any manner that I/we may
determine.
DONOR(S)
SIGNATURE (Please use ball point pen)
SIGNATURE DATE
SIGNATURE DATE
DESCRIPTION AND CONDITION OF OBJECTS
The National Park Service hereby gratefully
acknowledges the receipt of the item(s) listed above.
SIGNATURE DATE
TITLE
PARK
ADDRESS
GIFTS TO THE
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE ARE TAX DEDUCTIBLE AS CHARITABLE CONTRIBUTIONS, HOWEVER
IT IS THE DONOR'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SECURE APPRAISALS TO SUPPORT DEDUCTIONS.
(See IRS Pamphlet 561)
FORM
10‑830 Rev May 2003
APPENDIX D U.S. Department of the Interior
National
Park Service
ORAL
HISTORY RESEARCH AGREEMENT
Park
Code: ___________
The
use of this park’s oral history materials, including tapes, transcripts, and
associated documentation is freely granted to all responsible researchers,
subject to the following rules:
1.
A researcher must register each time
he/she uses the oral history collection.
2.
A researcher must state the reason(s) for
use.
3.
No oral history materials may be
reproduced without permission of the park staff.
4.
The researcher assumes full
responsibility for conforming to the laws of libel and copyright that may be
involved in the use of any oral history materials in this collection. To the extent possible, park staff will
assist in ascertaining the copyright status of materials.
I
have read the rules listed above and agree to abide by them.
Signature
______________________________
Date ___________________
Address
____________________________________________________________
Telephone
No. _______________________
Reason(s)
for Use:
Materials
Used:
Park Staff Signature
__________________________________________________
APPENDIX E
Translation and Transcription
The qualities of a good
translator should include familiarity with cultural speech conventions;
vocabulary particular to project goals; knowledge of age, sex, ethnic, or race
factors affecting interviews; depending on project goals, ability to write in
the native language, and ability to translate accurately without adding his or
her own interpretations.
The translation project
should be made explicit, so the reader can easily track how the English text
was derived from the native language.
The best translation method involves a multi-stage approach. First the spoken source language is
transcribed verbatim. Next, the
transcript is translated into English as carefully and literally as
possible. In the third stage, it is
translated more freely, in a more readable form. Ideally, there would be a fourth stage, in
which the text is translated back to the source language and reviewed and
corrected by the speaker in order to ensure that the translation is accurate.
Transcribers of languages
other than English should avoid using international phonetic scripts. Most languages, including Native American
languages, have easy to use transcription systems developed over the years by
linguists, missionaries, and anthropologists.
These systems should be used and native transcribers enlisted whenever
possible.
When impossible to
transcribe an interview in the native language, set up a sound system in which
the transcriber can play the original recorded interview. The transcriber then orally translates the
interview by phrases or other natural divisions of the interview. The new source-language interview and the
translation are recorded on another recorder.
For more detailed information about translations and transcription, see
the references provided in the bibliography for this handbook.
SELECTED SOURCES
Allen, Barbara,
and William Lynwood Montell. From Memory
to History: Using Oral Sources in Local Historical Research. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,
1991.
Baum, Willa
K. Oral
History for the Local Historical Society.
Third Edition, Rev. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 1995.
Baum, Willa
K. Transcribing
and Editing Oral History. Nashville:
American Association for State and Local History, 1991.
Custred, Glynn.
“Oral Traditions and Rules of Evidence.” Mammoth
Trumpet. 16 (3): 17-19,2001.
Davis, Cullom,
Kathryn Back and Kay MacLean. Oral History: From Tape to Type. Chicago:
American Library Association, 1976.
Deering, Mary
Jo, and Barbara Pomeroy. Transcribing without Tears: A Guide to
Transcribing and Editing Oral History Interviews. Washington, DC: George Washington University
Library, 1976.
Dunaway, David
K., and Willa K. Baum. Oral History: An Interdisciplinary
Anthology. American Association for State and Local History. Second Edition, 1996.
Ives, Edward
D. The
Tape-Recorded Interview: A Manual for Field Workers in Folklore and Oral
History. Knoxville: University of
Tennessee Press, 1980.
Mercier, Laurie
and Madeline Buckendorf. Using Oral History in Community
HistoryProjects. Oral History
Association Pamphlet Series #4, 1992.
Neuenschwander,
John A. Oral History and the Law.
Carlisle, PA: Oral History Association Pamphlet Series #1. Third
Edition, 2002.
Oral History
Association. Oral History Evaluation
Guidelines. Oral History Association Pamphlet Series #3, 1991. (web
version: Adopted 1989, Revised 2000)
Ritchie, Donald
A. Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Sommer, Barbara
W. and Mary Kay Quinlan. The Oral History Manual. American Association for State and Local
History, 2002.
Vansina,
Jan. Oral
Tradition as History. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.
[1]For definitions of oral history and oral
tradition, see Donald A. Ritchie, Doing
Oral History (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995), p. 1; Barbara W. Sommer
and Mary Kay Quinlan, “A Guide to Oral History Interviews,” Technical Leaflet
#210, History News, vol. 55, no. 3,
(American Association for State and Local History, 2000):2; Marion Matters,
comp. Oral History Cataloging Manual
(Chicago: American Society of Archivists, 1995); David Henige, Oral Historiography, 1982; Texas
Historical Commission, “Fundamentals of Oral History: Texas Preservation Guidelines;”
Glynn Custred, “Oral Traditions and Rules of Evidence,” Mammouth Trumpet, vol. 16, no. 3 (June 2001): 17-19.
[2] See American Society of Landscape Architects, “Oral History Guidelines for Landscape Architects,” 1990.
[3] P.L. 95-341; 42 USC 1996.
[4] Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, Guide to Oral History Interviews, p. 5.
[5] Donald A. Ritchie, Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide (Twayne Publishers, 1995), p. 43.
[6] Oral History Association. Principles and Standards of the Oral History Association.
[7] John A. Neuenschwander,
Oral History and the Law (Carlisle,
PA: Oral History Association Pamphlet Series #1, 3d ed., 2002).
[8] Ibid.,pp.12-13.