Site design is a process of intervention involving the location of circulation, structures, and utilities, and making natural and cultural values available to visitors. The process encompasses many steps from planning to construction, including initial inventory, assessment, alternative analysis, detailed design, and construction procedures and services.

SUSTAINABLE SITE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

In many places, the land is more damaged than previously believed. Soil erosion, groundwater contamination, acid rain, and other industrial pollutants are damaging the health of plant communities, thereby intensifying the challenge and necessity to restore habitats. As only one component of an interdependent natural system, the human species must develop a respect for the landscape and expend more effort understanding the interrelationships of soils, water, plant communities and associations, and habitats, as well as the impacts of human uses on them.

Beyond a change in basic approach, sustainable site design requires holistic, ecologically based strategies to create projects that do not alter or impair but instead help repair and restore existing site systems. Site systems such as plant and animal communities, soils, and hydrology must be respected as patterns and processes of the living world. These strategies apply to all landscapes, no matter how small or how urban.

Useful in understanding sustainable ecologically-based site design are the "Valdez Principles for Site Design," developed by Andropogon Associates, Ltd. These strategies are precedent-setting in their application and especially important to rightfully integrate the built environment into a setting or site.

• Recognition of Context. No site can be understood and evaluated without looking outward to the site context. Before planning and designing a project, fundamental questions must be asked in light of its impact on the larger community.
  
• Treatment of Landscapes as Interdependent and Interconnected. Conventional development often increases fragmentation of the landscape. The small remaining islands of natural landscape are typically surrounded by a fabric of development that diminishes their ability to support a variety of plant communities and habitats. This situation must be reversed. Larger whole systems must be created by reconnecting fragmented landscapes and establishing contiguous networks with other natural systems both within a site and beyond its boundaries.
  
• Integration of the Native Landscape with Development. Even the most developed landscapes, where every trace of nature seems to have been obliterated, are not self-contained. These areas should be redesigned to support some component of the natural landscape to provide critical connections to adjacent habitats.
  
• Promotion of Biodiversity.The environment is experiencing extinction of both plant and animal species. Sustaining even a fraction of the diversity known today will be very difficult. Development itself affords a tremendous opportunity to emphasize the establishment of biodiversity on a site. Site design must be directed to protect local plant and animal communities, and new landscape plantings must deliberately reestablish diverse natural habitats in organic patterns that reflect the processes of the site.
  
• Reuse of Already Disturbed Areas. Despite the declining availability of relatively unspoiled land and the wasteful way sites are conventionally developed, existing built areas are being abandoned and new development located on remaining rural and natural areas. This cycle must be reversed. Previously disturbed areas must be reinhabited and restored, especially urban landscapes.
  
• Making a Habit of Restoration. Where the landscape fabric is damaged, it must be repaired and/or restored. As most of the ecosystems are increasingly disturbed, every development project should have a restoration component. When site disturbance is uncontrolled, ecological deterioration accelerates, and natural systems diminish in diversity and complexity. Effective restoration requires recognition of the interdependence of all site factors and must include repair of all site systems - soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife.
  

TRADITIONAL VS. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable site design reinforces the holistic character of a landscape. It conveys appreciation of and respect for the interrelationships of a site, illuminating the interconnection of all parts through responsive design integrated with interpretive and cultural objects. Using a resort as a model, the difference in focus between traditional and sustainable development can be illustrated (see table 4).

View Table 4: Comparison of Traditional and Sustainable Developments

GENERAL SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following considerations apply to sustainable site design:

• Promote spiritual harmony with, and embody an ethical responsibility to, the native landscape and its resources.
  
• Plan landscape development according to the surrounding context rather than by overlaying familiar patterns and solutions.
  
• Do not sacrifice ecological integrity or economic viability in a sustainable development; both are equally important factors in the development process.
  
• Understand the site as an integrated ecosystem with changes occurring over time in dynamic balance; the impacts of development must be confined within these natural changes.
  
• Allow simplicity of functions to prevail, while respecting basic human needs of comfort and safety.
  
• Recognize there is no such thing as waste, only resources out of place.
  
• Assess feasibility of development in long-term social and environmental costs, not just short-term construction costs.
  
• Analyze and model water and nutrient cycles prior to development intervention - "First, do no harm."
  
• Minimize areas of vegetation disturbance, earth grading, and water channel alternation.
  
• Locate structures to take maximum advantage of passive energy technologies to provide for human comfort.
  
• Provide space for processing all wastes created onsite (collection/recycling facilities, digesters, lagoons, etc.) so that no hazardous or destructive wastes will be released into the environment.
  
• Determine environmentally safe means of onsite energy production and storage in the early stages of site planning.
  
• Phase development to allow for the monitoring of cumulative environmental impacts of development.
  
• Allow the natural ecosystem to be self-maintaining to the greatest extent possible.
  
• Develop facilities to integrate selected maintenance functions such as energy conservation, waste reduction, recycling, and resource conservation into the visitor experience.
  
• Incorporate indigenous materials and crafts into structures, native plants into landscaping, and local customs into programs and operations.
  

SPECIFIC SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Premises. What makes a region or site attractive for tourism development? First and foremost, it must possess outstanding natural or otherwise unique characteristics - e.g., beaches, mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, oceans, land forms, cultural resources - that visitors will want to experience. Siting of the tourism development focuses on these natural characteristics, and the site inventory and analysis should clearly identify the quality and extent of these geographic features. A site may also be attractive for its proximity to a feature or merely its remoteness from other development.

The environmental characteristics that make an area attractive to visitors may also pose problems. Some attractive areas may be very sensitive to disturbance and unable to withstand impacts of human activity. The limits of acceptable environmental change may be small for these areas, allowing only low density use to maintain a sustainable environmental quality. Other attractive areas may be too remote to justify development for direct visitor use. Conversely, some areas may be too close to safety hazards or overly developed to be appropriate for tourism development. However, some degraded areas may in fact provide opportunities for visitor development, allowing more options for site manipulation and ecological restoration.

Many recreational developments are in remote locations, often at the "end of the line," making many product inputs and outputs quite expensive and environmentally consumptive.

The site selection process asks a series of questions:

• Can development impacts on a site be minimized?
  
• What inputs (energy, material, labor, products) are necessary to support a development option, and are required inputs available?
  
• Can waste outputs (solid waste, sewage effluent, exhaust emissions) be dealt with at acceptable environmental costs?
  

The process of site selection for sustainable developments is one of identifying, weighing, and balancing the attractiveness (environmental, cultural, access) of a site against the costs inherent in its development (environmental, cultural, access, hazards, energetics, operational). The characteristics of a region or site should be described spatially (either conventional or computer-generated maps) to provide a precise geographic inventory. Spatial zones meeting programmatic objectives, within acceptable environmental parameters, are likely development sites.

Factors. The programmatic requirements and environmental characteristics of sustainable tourism development will vary greatly, but the following factors should be considered in site selection:

• Capacity - As difficult as it can be to determine, every site has a carrying capacity for structures and human activity. A detailed site analysis should determine this capacity based on the sensitivity of site resources and the ability of the land to regenerate.
  
• Density - Siting of facilities should carefully weigh the relative merits of concentration versus dispersal. Natural landscape values may be easier to maintain if facilities are carefully dispersed. Conversely, concentration of structure leaves more undisturbed natural areas.
  
• Climate - Environments for tourism developments range from rain forest to desert. The characteristics of a specific climate should be considered when locating facilities so that human comfort can be maximized while protecting the facility from climatic forces such as violent storms and other extremes.
  
• Slopes - In many park environments steep slopes predominate, requiring special siting of structures and costly construction practices. Building on slopes considered too steep can lead to soil erosion, loss of hillside vegetation, and damage to fragile wetland and marine ecosystems. Appropriate site selection should generally locate more intensive development on gentle slopes, dispersed development on moderate slopes, and no development on steep slopes.
  
• Vegetation - It is important to retain as much existing native vegetation as possible to secure the integrity of the site. Natural vegetation is often an essential aspect of the visitor experience and should be preserved. Site selection should maintain large habitat areas and avoid habitat fragmentation and canopy loss. In some areas such as the tropics, most nutrients are held in the forest canopy, not in the soil - loss of canopy therefore causes nutrient loss as well. Plants occur in natural associations (plant communities) and should remain as established naturally.
  
• Views - Views are critical and reinforce a visitor experience. Site location should maximize views of natural features and minimize views of visitor and support facilities.
  
• Natural Hazards - Sustainable development should be located with consideration of natural hazards such as precipitous topography, dangerous animals and plants, and hazardous water areas. Site layout should allow controlled access to these features.
  
• Access to Natural and Cultural Features - Good siting practices can maximize pedestrian access to the wide variety of onsite and offsite resources and recreational activities. Low impact development is the key to protecting vital resource areas.
  
• Traditional Activities - Siting should be compatible with traditional agricultural, fishing, and hunting activities. Some forms of recreational development that supplant traditional land uses may not be responsive to the local economy.
  
• Energy and Utilities - Conventional energy and utility systems are often minimal or nonexistent in potential ecotourism areas. Siting should consider possible connections to offsite utilities, or more likely, spatial needs for onsite utilities. The potential exists for alternative energy use in many places, particularly solar- and wind-based energy systems. Good sustainable siting considers these opportunities.
  
• Separation of Support Facilities from Public Use Areas - Safety, visual quality, noise, and odor are all factors that need to be considered when siting support services and facilities. These areas need to be separated from public use and circulation areas. In certain circumstances, utilities, energy systems, and waste recycling areas can be a positive part of the visitor experience.
  
• Proximity of Goods, Services, and Housing - Tourism developments require the input of a variety of goods and services and often large staffs for operation. Siting should consider the availability of these elements and the costs involved in providing them.
  

Site access refers to not only the means of physically entering a sustainable development but also the en route experience route. For example, the en route experience could include transitions between origin and destination with sequential gateways, or it could provide an interpretive and/or educational experience. Other considerations for enhancing the experience of accessing a developed area include:

• Select corridors to limit environmental impacts and control development along the corridor leading to the facility.
  
• Provide anticipation and drama by framing views or directing attention to landscape features along the access route.
  
• Provide a sense of arrival at the destination.
  

Site access can be achieved by various means of travel including pedestrian, transit systems, private vehicles, boats, and aircraft. These transportation means impose limitations on users based on the capabilities of the traveler or the capacity of the particular transportation mode. Transportation means that are the least polluting, quiet, and least intrusive in the natural environment may be the most appropriate for a recreational development. Where environmental or other constraints make physical access impossible, remote video presentation may be the only way for people to access a site. The need to construct a road into a site is the first critical decision to be made. Building a road into a pristine site should be considered a serious intervention that will change the site forever. Roads tend to create irreversible impacts.

Road Design and Construction. A curvilinear alignment should be designed to flow with the topography and add visual interest; crossing unstable slopes should be avoided. Steep grades should be used as needed to lay road lightly on the ground, and retaining walls should be included on cut slopes to ensure long-term slope stability. The road should have low design speeds (with more and tighter curves) and a narrower width to minimize cut-and-fill disturbance. Overengineering of park roads should be avoided.

Access corridors should be provided for multiple purposes - e.g., visitors, maintenance, security, emergency vehicles, underground utilities. Secondary access (road, dock, or helicopter landing site) should always be provided to permit emergency entry and evacuation in the event of a natural disaster. Multiuse corridors can be effective, especially in preconstruction planning. Using the same road during construction can limit site degradation and relandscaping.

Many soils are highly susceptible to erosion. Vegetation clearing on the road shoulders should be minimized to limit erosion impacts and retain the benefits of greenery. All fill slopes should be stabilized and walls provided in cut sections where needed. Exposed soils should be immediately replanted and mulched. Paved ditches are frequently used to stem erosion along steep road gradients. In the design of park roads, landscape solutions are preferred to render a softer appearance.

Unpaved surfaces are appropriate in areas of stable soils, lower slopes, and low traffic loads, but they require more maintenance. Permeable paved surfaces allow limited percolation of precipitation while providing better wear than unpaved surfaces. Impermeable paved surfaces are needed for roads with the highest load and traffic requirements. Whenever possible, recycled materials should be used in the construction of the surfacing, e.g., crushed glass, shredded rubber tires, or recycled aggregate. The surfacing material should blend with predominant landscape tones. Contractual arrangements should be developed with local businesses for the reuse/recycling of any construction waste.

Other Access Improvements. It is imperative that ship corridors or channels do not traverse or that boat docks are not constructed over fragile marine environments such as coral reefs. Marine facilities should be developed to allow natural beach sand movement to continue unimpeded. Permanent anchor buoys should be installed in harbor areas to mitigate anchor damage to bottom environments.

Airstrip and approach flight paths should be located safely and to protect recreation facilities (park development) from visual and noise impacts of airplanes. Permeable pavements should be used to increase water recharge and lessen runoff.

Core Site Access. Access within recreation-related development is typically pedestrian. Automobiles are usually restricted to the edges of the development. Paths should be laid out to avoid sensitive resources and be built at-grade. In areas that are particularly environmentally sensitive or very steep, elevated walkways can be used. Elevated walkways also limit indiscriminate pedestrian access to fragile vegetation.

While all visitor facilities should be accessible to visitors with disabilities, some natural features and site opportunities may by their very nature limit total accessibility. Rather than forcing unacceptable physical disturbance to make these areas accessible or precluding access to all visitors with disabilities, the concept of challenge levels should be used. The degree of difficulty is determined and made known to visitors in advance much the same way ski slopes are classified as beginner, intermediate, or expert. Challenge levels assume that while key facilities will be readily accessible to all visitors, other sections of the park or tourism development will be more difficult to access, and will involve some sense of adventure and accomplishment.

Utilities and Waste Systems

Utility Systems. With the development of a site comes the need for some level of utility systems. Even the smallest human habitat requires sanitary facilities for human waste and provisions for water. More elaborate developments have extensive systems to provide electricity, gas, heating, cooling, ventilation, and storm drainage. The provision of these services and the appurtenances associated with them sometimes create substantial impacts on the landscape and the functioning of the natural ecosystem. Sustainable site planning and design principles must be applied early in the planning process to assist in selecting systems that will not adversely affect the environment and will work within established natural systems. After the appropriate systems are selected, careful planning and design is required to address secondary impacts such as soil disturbance and intrusion on the visual setting.

Utility Corridors. Due to environmental impacts of utility transmission lines, onsite generation and wireless microwave receivers are preferred. When utility lines are necessary, they should be buried near other corridor areas that are already disturbed, such as roads and pedestrian paths. Overhead lines should not be located in desirable viewsheds or over landform crests. Low impact alternatives for utility liens such as shielded conduit placed on the ground or on low pedestal mounts should be considered. Many utility lines can be concealed under boardwalks and thereby eliminate ground disturbance.

Utility System Facility Siting. Sustainable development of the infrastructure embodies the principles of reducing scale, dispersals of facilities, and the use of terrain or vegetative features to visually screen intrusive structures. Odor and noise are strong nuisance factors that must be addressed by location and buffering. Also, the insulation of mechanical equipment that can have acoustical impacts should be considered. The exception to this rule may be to feature alternative utility systems for the purposes of interpretation for the environmentally conscious visitor.

Night Lighting. The nighttime sky can be dramatic. Light intrusion and overlighting glare can obscure what little night sight is available to humans. Care is required to limit night lighting to the minimum necessary for safety. Urban lighting standards do not apply. Low voltage lighting with photovoltaic collectors should be considered as an energy-efficient alternative. Light fixtures should remain close to the ground, avoiding glare from eye level fixtures.

Storm Drainage. In undisturbed landscapes, storm drainage is typically handled by vegetation canopy, ground cover plants, soil absorption, and streams and waterways. In a modified landscape, storm drainage must be understood in regard to the impacts on the existing drainage system and the resulting structures and systems that will be necessary to handle the new drainage pattern. The main principles in storm drainage control is to regulate runoff to provide protection from soil erosion and avoid directing water into unmanageable volumes. Removal of natural vegetation, topsoil, and natural channels that provide natural drainage control should always be avoided. An alternative would be to try and stabilize soils, capture runoff in depressions (to help recharge groundwater supply), and revegetate areas to replicate natural drainage systems.

Irrigation Systems. Low volume irrigation systems are appropriate in most areas as a temporary method to help restore previously disturbed areas or as a means to support local agriculture and native traditions. Restoration projects should consider the use of ultraviolet-tolerant irrigation components laid on the surface of the soil and removed when native plants have become established. Irrigation piping can be reused on other restoration areas or incorporated into future domestic hydraulic systems. Captured rain water, recycled gray water, or treated effluent could be used as irrigation water.

Waste Treatment. It is important to use treatment technologies that are biological, nonmechanical, and do not involve soil leaching or land disposal that causes soil disturbance. While a septic system can be considered, treatment methods that result in useful products such as fertilizer and fuels should be preferred. Land-intensive methods that significantly alter the natural environment may not be appropriate in sensitive environments. Constructed biological systems are being put to use increasingly to purify wastewater. They offer the benefits of being environmentally responsive, nonpolluting, and cost-effective.

Site-Adaptive Design Considerations

The concept of sustainability suggests an approach to the relationship of site components that is somewhat different from conventional site design. With a sustainable approach, site components defer to the character of the landscape they occupy so that the experience of the landscape will be paramount. More ecological knowledge is at the core of sustainable design. Instead of human functional needs driving the site design, site components respond to the indigenous spatial character, climate, topography, soils, and vegetation as well as compatibility with the existing cultural context. For example, all facilities would conform to constraints of existing landforms and tree locations, and the character of existing landscape will be largely maintained. Natural buffers and openings for privacy are used rather than artificially produced through planting and clearing. Hilly topography and dense vegetation are natural ways of separating site components.

Natural Characteristics. The greatest challenge in achieving sustainable site design is to realize that much can be learned from nature. When nature is incorporated into designs, spaces can be more comfortable, interesting, and efficient. It is important to understand natural systems and the way they interrelate in order to work within these constraints with the least amount of environmental impact. Like nature, design should not be static but always evolving and adapting to interact more intimately with its surroundings.

• Wind - The major advantage of wind in recreational development is its cooling aspect. For example, trade winds in the tropical environments often come from the northeast to the southeast quadrant, orientation of structures, and outdoor gathering places to take advantage of this cooling wind movement, or "natural" air conditioning. Native cultures understand this technique quite well, and local structures reflect these principles.
  
• Sun - Where sun is abundant, it is imperative to provide shade for human comfort and safety in activity areas (e.g., pathways patios). The most economical and practical way is to use natural vegetation, slope aspects, or introduced shade structures. The need for natural light in indoor spaces and solar energy are important considerations to save energy and showcase environmental responsive solutions.
  
• Rainfall - Even in tropical rain forests where water is seemingly abundant, clean potable water is often in short supply. Many settings must import water, which substantially increases energy use and operating costs, an makes conservation of water important. Rainfall should be captured for a variety of uses (e.g., drinking, bathing) and this water reused for secondary purposes (e.g., flushing toilets, washing clothes). Wastewater or excess runoff from developed areas should be channeled and discharged in ways that allow for groundwater recharge instead of soil erosion. Minimizing disturbance to soils and vegetation and keeping development away from natural drainageways protect the environment as well as the structure.
  
• Topography - In many areas, flatland is at a premium and should be set aside for agricultural uses. This leaves only slopes upon which to build. Slopes do not have to be an insurmountable site constraint if innovative design solutions and sound construction techniques are applied. Topography can potentially provide vertical separation and more privacy for individual structures. Changes in topography can also enhance and vary the way a visitor experiences the site by changing intimacy or familiarity (e.g., from a canyon walk to sweeping hillside overview). Again, protection of native soil and vegetation are critical concerns in high slope areas, and elevated walkways and point footings for structures are appropriate design solutions to this problem.
  
• Geology and Soils - Designing with geologic features such as rock outcrops can enhance the sense of place. For example, integrating rocks into the design of a deck or boardwalk brings the visitor in direct contact with the resource and the uniqueness of a place. Soil disturbances should be kept to a minimum to avoid erosion of fragile tropical soils and discourage growth of exotic plants. If limited soil disturbance must take place, a continuous cover over disturbed soils with erosion control netting should always be maintained.
  
• Aquatic Ecosystems - Development near aquatic areas must be based on an extensive understanding of sensitive resources and processes. In most cases, development should be set back from the aquatic zone and protective measures taken to address indirect environmental impacts. Particularly sensitive habitats such as beaches should be identified and protected from any disturbance. Harvesting of any aquatic resources should be based on definitive assessment of sustainable yield and subsequently monitored and regulated.
  
• Vegetation - Exotic plant materials, while possibly interesting and beautiful, are not amenable to maintaining healthy native ecosystems. Sensitive native plant species need to be identified and protected. Existing vegetation should be maintained to encourage biodiversity and to protect the nutrients held in the biomass of native vegetation. Native planting should be incorporated into all new developments on a 2:1 ratio of native plants removed. Vegetation can enhance privacy, be used to create "natural rooms," and be a primary source of shade. Plants also contribute to the visual integrity or natural fit of a new development in a natural setting. In some cases, plants can provide opportunities for food production and other useful products on a sustainable basis.
  
• Wildlife - Sensitive habitat areas should always be avoided. Encouraging wildlife to remain close to human activities centers enhances the visitor experience. This can be achieved by maintaining as much original habitat as possible. Creating artificial habitats or feeding wildlife could have disruptive effects on the natural ecosystem and should normally be avoided.
  
• Visual Character - Natural vistas should be used in design whenever possible. Creating onsite visual intrusions (road cuts, utilities, etc.) should be avoided, and views of offsite intrusions carefully controlled. A natural look can be maintained by using native building material, hiding structures within the vegetation, and working with the topography. It is easier to minimize the building footprint initially than it is to heal a visual scar at the end of construction.
  

Cultural Context. Local archeology, history, and people are the existing matrix into which visitation must fit. Sustainable principles seek balance between existing cultural patterns with new development. Developing an understanding of local culture and seeking their input in the development processes can make the difference between acceptance and failure.

• Archeology - A complete archeological survey prior to development is imperative to preserving resources. Once resources are located, they can be incorporated into designs as an educational or interpretive tool. If discovered during construction activities, work should be stopped and the site reevaluated. Sacred sites must be respected and protected.
  
• History - Cultural history should be reinforced through design by investigating and then interpreting vernacular design vocabulary. Local design elements and architectural character should be analyzed and employed to establish an architectural theme for new development.
  
• Indigenous Living Cultures - Cultural traditions should be encouraged and nurtured. A forum should be provided for local foods, music, art and crafts, lifestyles, dress, and architecture, as well as a means to supplement local incomes (if acceptable). Traditional harvesting of resource products should be permitted to reinforce the value of maintaining the resource.
  

Construction Methods and Materials

The complexity of construction is magnified in most parkland given the sensitivity of resources, isolation, and availability of local craftsmen and materials. The goal to leave landscape visually unimpaired after development drives the need to find new methods of management, new techniques, and constant reevaluation of every method and material use. For the project to be successful, there should be no residual signs of construction, and environmental damage should not be permitted. Through a network of organizations, sources of nontoxic, renewable or recyclable, and environmentally responsive building products are available to use when specifying materials.

Certain site design strategies may be discouraged based on the probable environmental impacts of the construction methods necessary to build them. Providing fewer vehicular roads and more pedestrian circulation paths may allow smaller structures in a more dispersed arrangement and be a means of providing greater experience of the landscape (see sketch no. 3). The desire to incorporate structures sensitively into the landscape may suggest the use of a few small light structures in place of one larger one. For example, outdoor or semioutdoor living, cooking, or bathing facilities combined with enclosed sleeping facilities may reflect local custom and create less disturbance to the site.

Construction Process Program. This required program will be a primer for developers, construction contractors, and maintenance workers. The plan covers materials, methods, testing, and options. A careful organization and sequencing of construction is emphasized. Examples include building walkways first, then using them as access to the site. Also it is important to plan material staging for areas in conjunction with future facilities. A knowledgeable construction supervisor must be involved, and all new construction methods should be tested in a prototypical first phase. Maintenance and operations staff should also be involved in this construction program and should participate in the development of an operations manual.

Construction Limits and Landscape Features. All undisturbed soil and vegetation located outside specifically designated construction limits should be fenced or otherwise protected (e.g., drop cloths, tree barriers). Where disturbance occurs, the site should be restored as soon as possible. All topsoil from construction area should be collected for use in site restoration. Preplanning the construction process will help identify alternative methods that minimize resource degradation. Flexibility in revising construction plans should be allowed to change materials and construction methods based on actual site impacts. Not all of the design will be constructed as drawn; therefore, the construction supervisor must be knowledgeable of the design intent and project environmental philosophy in order to redesign or adapt as necessary. Throughout construction, resource indicators should be monitored to ensure that resources are not being adversely affected.

Native Landscape Preservation/Restoration

Preservation of the natural landscape is of great importance during construction because it is much less expensive and more ecologically sound than subsequent restoration. Preservation entails carefully defining the construction zone - do not "clear and grub" any unnecessary soil areas because it encourages volunteer exotic growth in scarred areas.

Restoration of native planting patterns should be used when site disturbances are unavoidable. All native plants disturbed by the construction should be saved, healing them first in a temporary nursery. The site should be replanted with native materials in a mix consistent with that found in a natural ecosystem. In some instances, native materials should be used compositionally to achieve drama and visual interest for human benefit.

Noxious or toxic plant materials should not be used adjacent to visitor facilities. Eradication or control of exotic species should be considered, without creative negative effects on native plants. Some exotics are relatively benign; others are highly invasive. There should be an awareness of the hazards of removing exotics that may have displaced a native species, but in the process achieved a useful or even symbiotic relationship with other native plants. Ideally, plantings of native materials to control exotics should be used. Water for new plantings can be provided by locating plants in drainage swells or using temporary irrigation. New plantings should be mulched with forest cover.

Interpretation of the restoration areas will inform and educate the public on the value of native landscape restoration. Protection of existing resources in the ecosystem is the fundamental purpose of sustainable design.

Visitor Safety and Security

The design of a tourism development involves a closer, more integrated relationship of visitors with nature. To some extent, this concept is contrary to some conventional provisions for visitor security and safety. Visitor awareness of their natural surroundings is the best safety insurance. Written and personal briefings by staff could help foster awareness of safety risks and allow visitors to take responsibility for their own safety and security.

Some important design considerations are as follows:

• Visitors must have a sense of personal safety and security to be attracted to recreation areas. The facility must have reasonable provisions to protect visitors from natural and manmade hazards. Location of walks and lodging must be designed to discourage visitor contact with dangerous plants or animals.
  
• The design should consider safety from climate extremes; visitors may be unaware of natural hazards, including intense sun, high wind, heavy rainfall, and extreme humidity.
  
• Ecological integrity must be balanced with safety concerns in a development where adventure and challenge are integral to the experience. Various challenge levels in site facilities should be provided to accommodate all visitors, including visitors with disabilities.
  
• The use of artificial lighting should be limited to retain natural ambient light levels - baffle lights or use ground-mounted light fixtures to limit spillover light impacts while providing a basic sense of security.
  
• Appropriate atmosphere and security can be enhanced by remote location and controlled access to the facilities - incorporate natural barriers into facility design to minimize need for security fencing or barriers.
  
• An alternate means of access should be available to provide essential emergency provisions of water, food, and medicine, and a reliable communication system.