Cultural Resources

The area now comprising Yosemite National Park was first inhabited by people between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago. Some preliminary evidence from the El Portal area indicates people may have been living there as long as 9,500 years ago. The park area contains hundreds of archeological sites, evincing thousands of years of occupation. There is evidence of technological change through time, a highly developed trade network, at least one population replacement, and significant environmental manipulation through the use of fire.

When Euro-Americans first entered Yosemite Valley in 1851, the Indians living there were most likely a mixture of Southern Sierra Miwok, Mono Lake Paiute, and Central Sierra Miwok. The upland areas of the Merced River drainage were frequented by Southern Sierra Miwok, possibly Mono Lake Paiute, and at least traversed by Western Monos and possibly Chukchansi Yokuts. El Portal was inhabited by Miwok people as well. The Wawona area was home to Miwok people, and perhaps some Western Mono and Chukchansi Yokuts.

The Mariposa Indian War of 1851, triggered by the influx of Euro-American miners, ranchers, farmers, and merchants taking Indian lands since 1848, resulted in a call for volunteers to pursue the Indians. Some Indians escaped, but many were taken to the Fresno River reservation. The battalion that formed, known as the Mariposa Battalion, was the first group of non-Indians to enter Yosemite Valley. Their route passed through a portion of the South Fork river canyon. Some Indians were taken prisoner and led out of Yosemite Valley; some escaped and returned to Yosemite Valley before reaching the Fresno River. Later expeditions proved no more successful, and the Indians remained in Yosemite Valley. Although federal Indian agents were authorized to negotiate treaties with Indians in the Yosemite area, these (and many of the other California Indian treaties) were never ratified by the U.S. Congress, leaving Indian tribes landless and without rights as sovereign governments.

After 1851, as awareness of Yosemite Valley grew, hotels and other travel-related amenities were developed. Beginning in the late 19th century, American Indian descendants of some of the original populations in Yosemite Valley found employment with these enterprises and continued to live in ancestral villages. The employment opportunities in Yosemite Valley also drew Indian people from other surrounding areas. Management of the Valley was taken over by Euro-American institutions, and American Indian interests were subject to decisions made without their influence. Customs changed as Indian people built nontraditional houses, vacated old village sites, and built new villages. These changes were due in part to efforts by Euro-Americans to centralize the Indian people as a tourist "attraction" and control their activities. The small groups that came together in these latter settlements combined cultural practices, traditional arts, and beliefs. The last "Indian Village" in Yosemite Valley was closed in 1969, and the structures were razed.

Indian people continue to live in and around the park, and many are employed by the National Park Service, the concessioner, or other local businesses. At least seven Indian tribes claim traditional associations with Yosemite National Park, and the National Park Service has entered into various agreements with the American Indian Council of Mariposa County, Inc., the political organization representing the Southern Sierra Miwok tribe. Individuals from most of these tribes continue to maintain cultural associations with lands and resources in Yosemite National Park through traditional ceremonies, gathering of traditional plants, and other activities.

During the mid-1850s and 1860s, the natural scenery of Yosemite Valley was brought to America's attention through journal articles written by Thomas Starr King in the Boston Evening Transcript and by James M. Hutchings in his California Magazine. A heightened awareness of the Valley landscape was also provided through the works of artists such as Thomas Ayres, Albert Bierstadt, and Carleton Watkins. Painted, photographic, and literary images of Yosemite's beauty drew people to the area.

Hutchings organized the first tourist excursion to Yosemite Valley, in 1855. By 1860, entrepreneurs had constructed hotels to capitalize on what would become a thriving tourist trade. Homestead claims were filed, orchards were planted, and Yosemite Valley became a residential base for many families. Hutchings became a permanent resident of Yosemite Valley in 1864 and constructed several structures including a cabin on Yosemite Creek. In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln and the Congress set aside the Big Tree Grove (Mariposa Grove) and Yosemite Valley as a public park to preserve the monumental scenic qualities of the area. The act stated that Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were to be managed by the governor of California and his eight appointed commissioners, chaired by Frederick Law Olmsted.

By 1870, the establishment of visitor hotels in Yosemite Valley had created a need for local fresh produce and livestock. James Lamon, Yosemite Valley's first Euro-American homesteader, became one of the largest producers of commercial agricultural products in Yosemite Valley. Remnants of two of his orchards still exist, as well as an orchard planted near the site of Hutchings Sawmill. With the introduction of crops and livestock came fences, outbuildings, and other developments that detracted from the beauty of Yosemite Valley.

Introduced vegetation also became a concern. In 1888, Frederick Law Olmsted outlined a policy for management of the valley and presented it in the San Francisco Examiner. Cultivation of crops was to be restricted to areas that had already been plowed; natural meadows were to be preserved; and tree cutting was to be permitted only under the supervision of a landscape gardener.

Due to the early conservation movement led by people such as John Muir and Robert Underwood Johnson, Congress passed an act establishing Yosemite National Park in 1890. This act brought protection to the lands and resources within the watersheds of the Tuolumne and Merced River systems. The park was managed by cavalry troops sent from the Presidio in San Francisco. By 1906, the State of California relinquished its rights of control over the Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove grant lands, receding them to the federal government.

Major H.C. Benson, acting superintendent from 1905 until 1908 under the Department of the Army, stated in his 1907 annual report that, "[s]ome definite general plan should be devised for the beautifying of the valley and making it the most beautiful park in the world. All bridges and buildings constructed in the future should conform to a definite plan, suited to existing conditions. All roads should be laid out according to a plan fully worked out by a competent landscape gardener; nothing should be done in the way of expending money which does not tend to carry out these ideas. All small buildings, practically shacks, should be replaced by stone buildings, and all bridges, when replaced, should be either of stone or concrete." Many bridges and roads were, in fact, built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers during the years between 1905 and 1915 (Carr 1998).

One of the birthplaces of the nationwide conservation movement was in Yosemite National Park. This movement coalesced in the formation of the Sierra Club, which has had major effects on the National Park System. In 1903, the Sierra Club built the LeConte Memorial Lodge in Yosemite Valley (named for Joseph LeConte, one of the group's founders). Parsons Memorial Lodge (named after a former outing director of the Sierra Club) was built in Tuolumne Meadows in 1915. Both of the structures served as focal points for Sierra Club activities and are now designated as National Historic Landmarks, used for interpretive and educational functions.

By 1930, Yosemite's managers outlined areas of particular concern, including activities that encroached on meadows, such as Indian Field Days at Leidig Meadow and the parking areas at Stoneman Meadow. The committee recommended that a landscape map be prepared to record the areas occupied by forests, woodlands, chaparral, and meadows. They also wanted to document the historic distribution of natural landscape types from photographs and records.

Beginning in 1933, many of the people who had worked in Yosemite were completing projects for the Public Works Administration under John Wosky, another prominent National Park Service figure. The creation of the Public Works Administration made many individuals available for work in the parks. The Civilian Conservation Corps also completed an extensive range of projects in Yosemite, including construction of roads, trails, bridges, fire roads, fire buildings, fire lanes, fire trails, comfort stations, and campgrounds. Additional projects included river and creek bank stabilization, revegetation, extensive landscaping, and debris cleanup.

The Euro-American history of the Merced River gorge began in the 1870s, when James Hennessey of El Portal built and maintained a trail between El Portal and Yosemite Valley through the gorge. The Coulterville and Yosemite Turnpike Company constructed the Coulterville Road, which entered the Merced River canyon just west of the Cascades area and continued east to Yosemite Valley. In 1907, after two years of construction, the Yosemite Valley Railroad Company completed the El Portal Road between the rail terminus at El Portal and Yosemite Valley.

The Yosemite Hydroelectric Power Plant and associated structures (including the diversion dam) were constructed during 1917-1918 to provide electrical power to Yosemite Valley. Water was diverted from the Merced River into a wooden penstock that paralleled El Portal Road and dropped into the power plant, where electricity was generated. The electricity was then conducted along 11-kilovolt overhead power lines from the power plant to Yosemite Valley. This complex is listed in the National Register of Historic Places, significant for engineering. This hydropower system is no longer in use, and many elements of it have been removed in consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer and Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (NPS 1986). The five Cascades residences were constructed to provide housing for individuals responsible for maintaining and operating this system.

The first documented non-Indian to settle in the El Portal area was James Savage, who established a trading post at the confluence of the South Fork and main stem of the Merced River, several miles below present-day El Portal. Other miners and traders arrived in the area during the next several decades, and in the early 1870s James A. Hennessey developed a small ranch and orchard in the present-day Trailer Village area. Hennessey supplied hotels at Glacier Point, Yosemite Valley, and El Portal, and even packed produce to some of the gold rush boomtowns east of the Sierra Nevada (including Bodie).

Barium deposits were discovered near present-day Rancheria Flat in the 1880s, and in 1907, the Yosemite Valley Railroad completed its rail line to the park's western boundary, where the company established a railhead named El Portal. The rail line, which operated until 1945, resulted in the development of significant tourist, timber, mining, and cement industries in the El Portal area. Many structures representative of these enterprises remain as historic properties today.

To date, approximately 6% of park lands have been inventoried for archeological resources, and over 1,100 archeological sites have been documented. Most of the inventories focus on lower elevation developed areas and road corridors; however, some wilderness areas have been surveyed. In most cases, inventories have been conducted in support of park development projects as part of the environmental and historic preservation compliance process. The most recent comprehensive overview of archeological resources and their information value is presented in An Archeological Synthesis and Research Design for Yosemite National Park, California (Hull et al. 1999). This document summarizes the results of past archeological research, and presents research questions and methodologies for furthering understanding of prehistoric and historic lifeways in the Yosemite region.

In general, archeological sites are important for the information they can provide regarding prehistoric and historic lifeways. Prehistoric and historic American Indian sites are important to Indian people as a tangible link with the past. Prehistoric sites in Yosemite generally contain some of the following: flaked and ground stone tools, waste from tool manufacture, food processing features, fire hearths, structural remains, human burials, and rock art. Historic archeological sites provide important information not available in written records, such as early building construction techniques, lifestyle of early settlers, trade and procurement of goods and materials, and interactions with native peoples. Historic sites include structural remains, waste dumps, work camps, and remains of industrial activities such as logging and mining.

Very little archeological inventory has been conducted in the upper reaches of the Merced River drainage. Some inventory of historic archeological resources has been accomplished. Cavalry trails (to patrol for trespass) and hunting have been documented. Little Yosemite Valley, in particular, was used heavily by Indian people, stockmen, and later by recreationists. A branch of the old Mono Trail, the east-west link across the Sierra Nevada, passed through Little Yosemite Valley and afforded Indian people a pleasant stopping place. Remains of at least two villages are evident. Little Yosemite Valley also was one of the few places where the Merced River could be crossed at high water, a crossing possible because of a huge logjam that still exists today.

The remains of the Leonard homestead (collapsed cabin and park boundary fence) also exist in Little Yosemite Valley, and the eastern portions (above the original Yosemite Grant) were grazed. A High Sierra Camp was established along Sunrise Creek in 1924 as a stopping point along the way to Merced Lake. A primary activity for camp visitors was climbing Half Dome; this continues to be the focus for most visitors camping in Little Yosemite Valley today. Resources associated with these activities include tree blazes, historic camps, and trash scatters. Above Little Yosemite Valley, the upper reaches of the Merced River drainage (as well as the majority of the upper South Fork drainage) seem to have been much less used.

Yosemite Valley was designated an archeological district and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Early archeological surveys of Yosemite Valley focused on prehistoric or historic Indian sites rather than historic-era resources representative of homesteading, visitor, and National Park Service facilities. The entire Yosemite Valley has been surveyed for prehistoric resources, except for wet meadows, areas of impenetrable vegetation, and some talus slopes. Some historic-era archeological deposits have been documented, and areas of known historic development are documented on historic base maps.

The archeological district comprises over 100 known sites, many of which are significant for their ability to yield important information about prehistoric lifeways. The prehistoric sites contain milling stations (granite boulders with mortar cups or milling slicks, the most common feature documented to date); midden soils; artifact scatters (including obsidian waste flakes, obsidian and ground stone tools), soapstone vessel fragments, and dietary faunal remains; rockshelters; pictograph panels; human burials; artifact caches; house floors; fire hearths; and rock alignments. Historic archeological sites contain trash deposits, building foundations, privy pits, utilities, human burials, and landscape features such as ditches, roads, rock alignments, non-native plants, and trails.

Individual sites in the archeological district vary by type, size, depth, complexity, length of occupation, variety of remains, and potential to yield important scientific information. A recent synthesis and parkwide archeological research design (Hull et al. 1999) provides guidance in assessing the research potential of these sites. Important questions are identified in the areas of paleoenvironment, cultural chronology, economic patterns, settlement patterns, demography, and social organization. Sites are considered significant when they contain important information that relates to these areas of inquiry.

While the majority of archeological sites in Yosemite Valley retain a relatively high degree of integrity, many have been disturbed by human activity and natural processes (Hull and Kelly 1995). Visitor use has the most widespread impact, although its effect is not as serious as other types of impacts. Due to the scarcity of easily buildable land, several archeological sites have been damaged by construction of facilities and utilities. Many roads, hotels, and other visitor accommodations have been constructed since 1957, and appreciation of cultural resources is a relatively recent development.

Archeological resources in the Merced River gorge include historic and prehistoric sites. The historic sites are associated with development and use of this canyon as a travel corridor and include rock quarries, dumps, the remains of two work camps, a few unidentified structural foundations, and the Coulterville Road blacksmith shop in the talus west of Cascades where a forge was built to serve travelers along this road. Four prehistoric American Indian archeological sites are located in and adjacent to the Cascades area. These sites are likely seasonal villages and contain features such as mortar rocks, midden soil, lithic scatters, and rockshelters.

The El Portal archeological district contains 17 known sites. Prehistoric human burials in both isolated locations and in cemeteries, along with burial objects, have been identified. Recent archeological research (Hull et al. 1999) indicates resources in El Portal may represent some of the earliest human occupation and use of the Merced River corridor, dating possibly as early as 9,500 years ago. El Portal also may contain the best-preserved archeological resources from the protohistoric and early historic periods associated with American Indian cultural change. Although modern development has significantly changed the landscape and has destroyed archeological deposits in many places, much could be learned from these resources. There are also historic archeological deposits representative of ranching, mining, and railroad history of the area.

Recent investigations in El Portal have focused on a large historic American Indian family truck farm and adjacent cemetery (Davis-King 1998) situated on the south side of the Merced River. The truck farm was established by Johnny Wilson in the late 1800s. It contains important archeological deposits directly associated with Indians living today, although it is not identified as a traditional cultural property. The adjacent cemetery contains graves of ancestors of living Indian people.

The prehistory of the Wawona area is similar to that of the park as a whole. However, most occupation seems to have occurred somewhat earlier than occupation of Yosemite Valley. There has been less use in more recent times.

The Wawona area has been designated an archeological district and determined eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. There are at least 72 sites within the district boundaries that contain both historic and prehistoric resources. The significance of the district lies in its ability to provide information pertaining to subsistence strategies, seasonal use of specific ecological zones, demographic patterns, and both historic Miwok and pre-Miwok occupation of the area (NPS 1978).

Indian people continue their traditional cultural associations with park lands and resources. While little formal research has been conducted to inventory and document traditional resources important to Indian people, Yosemite Valley has been the focus of such a study. Incidental information exists for the Wawona and El Portal areas, but virtually none has been documented for the wilderness areas. Cultural affiliation studies are currently underway for both the northern and southern portions of the park; some information about places and traditional uses should be forthcoming from these studies. A parkwide Ethnographic Overview was prepared during the 1970s, but needs to be revised based on currently available information. Some ethnohistory studies, mostly focusing on Yosemite Valley and El Portal, also have been conducted.

The National Park Service consults with Indian people about management of park lands, especially regarding undertakings and park resources of concern. Some of the primary concerns are access to park areas, gathering of plant materials for food, medicinal, and utilitarian purposes, protection of archeological and burial sites, and interpretation of Indian culture and prehistoric and historic lifeways. The National Park Service is required to consult on the basis of Government-to-Government Relations with federally recognized Indian tribes, and on a more informal basis with tribes that are not federally recognized. The National Park Service has entered into an agreement with the American Indian Council of Mariposa County, Inc. for purposes of traditional practices and the establishment of an Indian Cultural Center at the site of the last historic Indian village in Yosemite Valley, west of Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground). The National Park Service is also in the process working with Indian people in developing plans for discovery and treatment of American Indian human remains, burial objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony.

Although some ethnographic resources have been documented in these areas, little is known about continuing traditional uses (especially within the Merced River corridor). It is likely these upper elevation areas were used mostly for east-west travel and trade, with seasonal occupation of some areas such as Little Yosemite Valley.

Ethnographic resources consist of features of the landscape that are linked by members of a contemporary community to their traditional ways of life. As more specifically defined by the National Park Service, ethnographic resources are any ". . . site, structure, object, landscape, or natural resource feature assigned traditional, legendary, religious, subsistence, or other significance in the cultural system of a group traditionally associated with it" (NPS 1991). A traditional cultural property is an ethnographic resource that is eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places.

A recent ethnographic study of Yosemite Valley identified and documented cultural and natural resources associated with American Indian occupation and use of Yosemite Valley (Bibby 1994). American Indians still living in the region provided oral history and assisted in the location of resources. The area evaluated extended from Pohono Bridge to Mirror Lake and Happy Isles and included all historic areas of human habitation, sites of traditional and contemporary spiritual value, marked and unmarked graves, and areas of past and present resource gathering and food processing. Resources included bedrock mortars and plant materials, such as California black oak groves and individual trees, grasses, mosses, sedges, and mushrooms. Most sites and features are historic, and tradition indicates that many have long histories of use. The ethnographic evaluation recommended that Yosemite Valley be designated a traditional cultural property and listed as such in the National Register of Historic Places.

In addition, the National Park Service has consulted with American Indian groups claiming affiliation with land and resources in Yosemite Valley. These are primarily the Southern Sierra Miwok (American Indian Council of Mariposa County, Inc.) and the Mono Lake Paiute (Mono Lake Indian Community). Chukchansi Yokuts and Western Mono groups may have cultural ties to Yosemite Valley, while many Central Sierra Miwok individuals have some family ties.

While there is no ethnographic information or direct historical data related to the American Indian occupations at the Cascades area and near Pohono Bridge, these sites were not locales of isolated human activity. The people using these sites would most likely have traveled through these areas between Yosemite Valley and the lower elevations of the Merced River canyon. In the 1980s, a fragment of a Miwok basket was discovered in the rock talus above Cascades. At the western extent of Cascades is a large boulder that figures in a Miwok origin story (NPS 1998c). Human remains have also been recovered from this area. The Southern Sierra Miwok, and possibly the Pauite and Central Miwok, are associated with lands and resources in the Merced River gorge.

A systematic inventory for ethnographic resources has not been undertaken for El Portal. However, information from ethnohistoric research (Bates and Wells 1978; Davis-King 1998; oral history information) indicates that several individuals and families have traditional ties to this area. Redbud, willow, sourberry, and other plant materials are known to be gathered here. There are at least three known cemeteries, two of which were used in historic times and are the burial places for ancestors of some local Indian families. Southern Sierra Miwok have the closest cultural ties to lands and resources in El Portal. Paiute and Central Miwok also have some association with these lands and resources.

No formal inventory for ethnographic resources has been undertaken for the Wawona area. A cultural affiliation study is currently underway, which will identify places, tribal groups, and families associated with the Wawona area. It is likely traditional plant gathering occurs, and as in El Portal and Yosemite Valley, ancestors of local Indian people are buried in the historic cemetery at Wawona. Southern Sierra Miwok have the closest cultural ties to lands and resources in Wawona. North Fork Mono and Chukchansi Yokuts also have some association with these lands and resources.

Comprehensive inventories and evaluations of historic sites, structures, and cultural landscape resources have been undertaken for Yosemite Valley and El Portal. For the other areas, information is taken from overview documents (e.g., NPS 1987b) and specific inventories (e.g., the Wilderness Historic Resource Surveys).

According to the DO-28 Cultural Resources Management Guidelines (NPS 1991c), a cultural landscape is:

...A reflection of human adaptation and use of natural resources and is often expressed in the way land is organized and divided, patterns of settlement, land use, systems of circulation, and the types of structures that are built. The character of a cultural landscape is defined both by physical materials, such as roads, buildings, walls, and vegetation, and by use reflecting cultural values and traditions.

Thus, cultural landscapes are the result of the long interaction between people and the land, and the influence of human beliefs and actions over time upon the natural landscape. Shaped through time by historical land use and management practices, as well as politics and property laws, levels of technology, and economic conditions, cultural landscapes provide a living record of an area's past, a visual chronicle of its history. The dynamic nature of modern human life contributes to the continual reshaping of cultural landscapes, making them a good source of information about specific times and places, but at the same time rendering their long-term preservation a challenge.

In the upper South Fork river corridor, known historic resources consist of segments of herder and cavalry trails. Other resources may exist, such as structures associated with early stockmen. In the main stem of the Merced River corridor, known historic resources (either documented in the List of Classified Structures, National Register nominations, or through Wilderness Historic Resource Surveys) consist of the John Muir Trail, remains of the original Yosemite Grant boundary fence, the ruins of the Leonard homestead, the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp, and just outside the river corridor, the Merced Lake Ranger Station. Other resources may exist (e.g., blazed trees, trash scatters, etc.), especially those associated with early stock grazing above the original Yosemite Grant boundary.

A determination of eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places has been prepared for the Yosemite Valley Historic District. This determination of eligibility recognizes the national level of historical significance of Yosemite Valley as a cultural landscape, from Indian settlement to 1945. The boundaries for the historic district extend from Pohono Bridge to Mirror Lake and Happy Isles and encompass a number of historic trails. The determination of eligibility provides an in-depth analysis of Yosemite Valley as a single entity, describes the Valley's cultural significance and characteristics, and lists both prehistoric and historic resources that contribute to the landscape's significance. The cultural landscape of Yosemite Valley is nationally significant under National Register criteria A, B, C, and D.

Under Criterion A, the cultural landscape of Yosemite Valley is associated with the following events that have contributed to a number of broad cultural patterns in our history: (1)  outdoor recreation, tourism, and conservation; (2) early state and national park development; (3) western expansion and exploration; (4) American Indian cultural property; and (5) development of the environmental conservation movement.

Under Criterion B, the cultural landscape of Yosemite Valley is associated with a number of nationally significant figures in art, literature, design, and politics. These include the photographers Carleton E. Watkins and Ansel Adams; the painter Albert Bierstadt; the landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted; the author John Muir; the architects Myron Hunt and Gilbert Stanley Underwood; and the Park Service Director Stephen T. Mather.

Under Criterion C, the cultural landscape of Yosemite Valley features nationally significant examples of architecture, including the Rangers. Club, the Ahwahnee Hotel, and the LeConte Memorial Lodge, all of which are National Historic Landmarks. The historic designed landscape of Yosemite Village is a nationally significant work of landscape architecture (although portions have been altered), specifically of early 20th-century American town planning.

Under Criterion D, the entire Valley is generally considered archeologically sensitive. Because of the active geologic processes, many archeological sites and features are completely buried or capped by historic or modern development and have no surface manifestations. The Yosemite Valley Archeological District is listed in the National Register and is a significant element in the landscape. There are more than 100 sites significant for their ability to provide important information about prehistoric lifeways. These are generally comprised of milling stations, midden soils, artifact scatters, rock shelters, pictograph panels, human burials, artifact caches, house floors, fire hearths, and rock alignments.

The geophysical characteristics of Yosemite Valley have shaped patterns of human use since the earliest days of Indian settlement. As a result, the Valley's cultural landscape is significant for its archeology, its role in the exploration/settlement of the west, architecture, art, landscape architecture, recreation, and conservation. The surpassing historical significance of the Yosemite Valley landscape derives from the fact that countless generations of local tribal groups, and later untold millions of park visitors, have infused the Valley's natural features with great cultural significance. Social groups as different as the Miwok and the U.S. Congress have recognized and celebrated the value of Yosemite Valley.

The cultural processes of defining sacred space, of turning land into landscape, and of making a wild place into a public park have made Yosemite Valley one of the most culturally significant natural places in America. Thus, the significance of the Yosemite Valley cultural landscape cannot be described or assessed apart from its significance as a natural landscape. Landscapes depend on unity for their emotional effect, and at Yosemite this unity combines the pastoral and the awesome, the natural and the cultural, the past and the present. The Valley's cultural landscape encompasses cliff walls, meadows, the river and streams, as well as roads, trails, and buildings.

Many historic sites and structures within Yosemite Valley have been singled out for their significance and are either National Historic Landmarks or listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Historical resources in Yosemite National Park were identified and evaluated in 1979 in the Cultural Resources Management Plan (NPS 1979a) and in the memorandum of agreement (1979) among the California State Historic Preservation Officer, the National Park Service, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, and its accompanying correspondence. A subsequent Historic Resources Study (NPS 1987b) and other project-specific reports identified and evaluated structures and sites not addressed in those earlier documents.

The Yosemite Village Historic District consists of several structures and facilities representing the residential and administrative core of Yosemite Valley. All phases of National Park Service architecture are present in the Yosemite Village, from structures designed and built by the U.S. Army to fine examples of Rustic architecture, as well as examples of Mission 66 architecture. The Ranger Club, a National Historic Landmark and an early (1921) example of the Arts and Crafts-inspired Rustic style in the park, set the tone for future building in the area.

The Ahwahnee is also a National Historic Landmark and was built in 1927 to provide first-class service and attract wealthy and influential visitors to Yosemite Valley. The hotel was designed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood to harmonize with the nearby rugged Valley walls. LeConte Memorial Lodge is also a National Historic Landmark structure and one of the focal points for the Sierra Club in Yosemite Valley. It was constructed by the Sierra Club in 1903 in honor of Joseph LeConte, one of its founding members. In 1919, it was moved from its original location, adjacent to Camp Curry, to its present location south of the river between Curry Village and Sentinel Bridge.

The Camp Curry National Register Historic District includes Mother Curry's bungalow and the Foster Curry cabin; the original registration building; several bungalow units; and canvas tent cabins. The camp itself dates from 1899, with changes and additions through the early 1920s. The tent cabins constitute the most significant and intact tent cabin complex left in the National Park System. Other structures, not associated with the development of original Camp Curry, still retain historical integrity and are considered contributing elements in the developed landscape.

Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground) was recently determined eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places for its association with the growth and development of rock climbing as a recreational/entertainment activity in Yosemite Valley. While camping is important as a recreational activity and land use in the historical context of the Yosemite Valley cultural landscape, the individual campgrounds themselves do not retain historical integrity and therefore are not considered contributing resources. However, Camp 4 is significant as a historic site for other reasons. From 1947 through 1970, Camp 4 was a meeting ground and important focal point for climbers in Yosemite Valley, and it served as a place of training, ascent planning, information and equipment exchange, and camaraderie.

In addition, eight granite-faced, concrete-arched, two-lane vehicle bridges were constructed along the Valley Loop Road between 1922 and 1933. Six of the bridges. Ahwahnee Bridge, Clark's Bridge, Pohono Bridge, Sugar Pine Bridge, Happy Isles Bridge, and Stoneman Bridge. cross the Merced River, while two others, Yosemite Creek Bridge and Tenaya Creek Bridge, cross these creeks. Each bridge is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Based on a cultural resources inventory completed in support of reconstruction of El Portal Road, the National Park Service, in consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer, determined that the Merced Canyon Travel Corridor is a significant historic property, eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. The primary element of this property is the El Portal Road itself, originally constructed as a wagon road in 1905, and substantially reconstructed in 1925. The road includes hand-laid stone parapet guardwalls and drainage catchment structures. Following consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, the majority of these features were removed as part of the El Portal Road Reconstruction Project. Other properties include rock quarries, historic trash scatters, sections of pre-1925 roadbed, historic work-camp sites, and the Arch Rock Entrance Station complex (eligible for the National Register as an individual property), which consists of a ranger residence/office, entrance kiosk, parking lot, and restroom building.

The Merced Canyon Travel Corridor determination of eligibility document (NPS 1997m) describes the important landscape characteristics of this property: "...the views of the Merced River Canyon, the use of natural materials, and purposeful design of situating the travel corridor in sympathy with the natural landscape."

Another historic resource in the gorge includes the structures and features associated with the Yosemite Hydroelectric Power Plant (also known as the Cascades Powerhouse). Structures associated with the hydroelectric system and included with the historic property listing are the diversion dam, the intake, screens and screenhouse, the penstock, the surge tank, the powerhouse and equipment, and the 11-kilovolt distribution line into Yosemite Valley. Some of these features were removed during the 1980s. Also considered contributing to this property are the five Cascades residences and garages, constructed between 1917 and 1924.

A comprehensive evaluation of cultural landscapes and historic structures at the El Portal Administrative Site, based on National Register criteria, has been completed. In addition, a draft El Portal historic base map has been prepared, based upon primary and secondary source documents (maps, photographs, oral history, and memoirs). The evaluation of historic resources documents the locations of ranches, facilities associated with the Yosemite Valley Railroad, American Indian homes, tungsten and barite mining resources and facilities, and commercial, resort, and lodging facilities. Many of these may exist today as archeological sites or landscape features.

Properties in El Portal that are either listed in or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places include the Bagby station house, water tanks, and turntable; Hetch Hetchy Railroad Engine number 5; Yosemite Valley Railroad caboose number 15; Murchison house and office (Yosemite Research Center); three National Lead Company residences in Rancheria Flat; and a store, school, the El Portal Market, the El Portal Hotel (now used as the Yosemite Institute headquarters), and three railroad residences, all in the Village Center.

A cultural landscape study of the Wawona area, focusing on Washburn Company holdings (including the National Historic Landmark Wawona Hotel Complex) is currently underway. The most significant of the historic structures in Wawona is the Victorian hotel complex, at the site of the earlier Clark's Station. The hotel complex includes seven structures and is significant for its architectural features as well as its historical associations with early California commerce and landscape painter Thomas Hill. The complex includes the Pavilion (former Hill's Studio), Little White (Manager's Cottage), Little Brown (Moore Cottage), Long White (Clark Cottage), Long Brown (Washburn Cottage), the Wawona Hotel, and the annex. The complex was designated a National Historic Landmark on May 28, 1987. The Wawona Golf Course, in operation since 1918 and overlying the eastern portion of Wawona Meadow, is also associated with the hotel complex.

This resort complex once encompassed many other facilities necessary to support such a remote facility. Other structures include the Covered Bridge, the Gray Barn, the Slaughterhouse, and the Laundry, now used as a wagon repair shop. Other facilities exist today as archeological or landscape features, including the Washburn Ditch, the remains of Stella Lake, the foundations from Washburn Company employee residences, dumps, remains of cow and horse pasturage, a split-rail fence encompassing most of the southern Wawona Meadow, a remnant orchard, and many other features.

Also extant is the first wagon road into Wawona, the Chowchilla Mountain Road, originally constructed in the late 1800s. This road linked Wawona with the Mariposa area and followed earlier toll trails into the area. Galen Clark's homestead is adjacent to the Wawona Golf Course and includes a planted stand of giant sequoias, a former well, and possibly the archeological remains of his home. There also are remnants of calvary activity in Wawona, which potentially may be eligible for listing on the National Register.

The Pioneer Yosemite History Center, on the banks of the South Fork, contains many structures relocated from other areas of the park. Four of the buildings are listed in the National Register, including the Hodgdon homestead cabin, Chris Jorgenson Studio, the acting superintendent's headquarters, and the Yosemite Transportation Company office. The George Anderson Cabin is also eligible for listing.

Also extant in the Wawona developed area are several Civilian Conservation Corps structures (for example, the National Park Service Maintenance Complex and Ranger Office) and three residences constructed immediately after the Wawona land purchase in 1932.

Visitor Experience

Yosemite National Park is guided by the National Park Service's enabling legislation, which has two purposes: to preserve Yosemite's unique natural resources and scenic beauty and to make these resources available to visitors for study, enjoyment, and recreation. The experience of visitors in Yosemite National Park is dependent on a number of factors, including the availability of recreational and interpretive opportunities, the availability of services, and the quality of the recreational environment and facilities. In general, there are two sometimes overlapping groups of Yosemite visitors: those who visit the developed or "frontcountry" areas of the park (including Yosemite Valley and Wawona) and El Portal, and those that visit Yosemite's designated Wilderness.

Visitation to Yosemite has grown substantially in recent years to nearly 4 million visitors annually, a steady increase from 2 million annual visitors two decades ago. Each visitor is looking for an individual experience while entering an increasingly crowded environment.

Many visitors choose to go only to the more developed areas of the park, including Yosemite Valley and Wawona, and to El Portal. The small gateway community of El Portal offers various visitor services, including a small store, gas station, and lodging, and provides access to the dramatic canyon and gorge sections of the Merced River. More than 80% of visitors travel to Yosemite Valley for all or part of their park visit. As they enter the Valley, visitors pass Bridalveil Fall and marvel at El Capitan's spectacular, sheer walls. In the east Valley, visitors enjoy a wide range of recreational opportunities and numerous amenities and services (including campgrounds, lodges, stores, restaurants, and the park's principal visitor center and museum) as well as dramatic scenery. Visitors entering the park from the South Entrance travel through the community of Wawona. This historically rich area features the Wawona Hotel and Golf Course and the Wawona Campground. In Wawona, along the South Fork of the Merced River, are private and government-owned houses, lodging, stores, community support facilities, a ranger station, and a small, seasonally operated visitor information center. Nearby are the Pioneer Yosemite History Center, concessioner stable, and a horse camp.

Most visitors to developed areas enter the park by private vehicle;^[22] their length of stay in the park ranges from several hours to several days. The visitor experience in developed areas varies depending on a number of factors. When visitors enter Yosemite Valley in a private vehicle on a busy summer day, they may spend much of their time negotiating the road system, searching for parking, and maneuvering through areas congested with people and cars. The vehicle-dominated character of much of the developed portion of the Valley can detract from the scenic views and natural environment that visitors come to Yosemite to enjoy. Once out of their vehicles, the visual presence and noise of vehicles continues to affect visitor experiences. Visitors who travel to the Valley for a group or social experience might view this situation in a positive light, while those seeking a more independent and solitary experience might view it as an intrusion.

For many visitors to Yosemite, driving through the park provides the primary means of experiencing its many sweeping landscapes. Even on the busiest summer days, travelers on park roads outside Yosemite Valley encounter only minor congestion, except at key activity or attraction areas and at park entrance stations. Driving within the park is usually a pleasurable experience, contributing to visitors. enjoyment. The ability to make informal stops along roads to take advantage of the unique and varied scenery contributes to each visitor's opportunity to experience the park on his or her own terms.

On the Big Oak Flat Road, the drive from the Big Oak Flat Entrance or from the Tioga Road toward Yosemite Valley is through dense forest broken by occasional clearings and views. From the Arch Rock Entrance Station, the visitor travels along the winding El Portal Road through the narrow Merced River gorge; spectacular views of the river highlight the trip into the Valley. Approaching Yosemite Valley along the Wawona Road by way of the South Entrance, visitors are afforded views from above the Merced River gorge and have the opportunity to stop at Tunnel View to experience this world-famous and historical viewpoint into Yosemite Valley. From Tunnel View, trees in the Valley hide roads, and little evidence of human influence is evident. Tunnel View also offers a spectacular panorama, including Bridalveil Fall and El Capitan in the foreground and the granite domes and cliffs of the east Valley in the background.

Some park visitors travel to Yosemite for the sole purpose of visiting the wilderness to enjoy its solitude and unconfined recreational opportunities. Most of these visitors arrive via private vehicle. Yosemite Valley and Wawona provide access to extensive wilderness areas that include the Merced River and the South Fork. Typically, these visitors spend several days in the wilderness, where the overall visitor experience is dramatically different from that in the Valley. Once beyond the first heavily traveled sections of trails and popular day-visitor destinations, wilderness visitors experience relative silence and solitude on the trail. Though there is some formalized camping in the wilderness, it is relatively uncrowded and visitors may camp away from others if they choose.

Most visitors to Yosemite travel by private vehicle. Tour buses, however, also accommodate a large percentage of visitors (see table III-5). In addition, a very small number of visitors use regional transit buses. It is estimated that fewer than 100 visitors ride to Yosemite Valley on the four daily trips operated by VIA Adventures to the Valley. In August, an average of 63 commercial tour buses enter Yosemite daily. Because Yosemite Valley is the primary destination for most commercial tour operators, it is assumed that all tour buses visit Yosemite Valley during their stay in the park. The tour buses carry an average of 1,673 riders into the Valley daily (about 12.5% of the estimated 13,301 visitors who were visiting Yosemite Valley for the first time) on a typical day in August. An average of 28 tour buses per day enters the Valley in April, carrying 722 passengers (about 13.5% of the 5,341 people entering the Valley on an average day).

Many day and overnight visitors make numerous trips within Yosemite Valley. A variety of activity areas and features attract visitors for varying lengths of time. Visitors circulate within the Valley in private vehicles, on foot, by bicycle, via free shuttle buses, and on concession-operated Valley tours. Data regarding the movement of visitors within the Valley are generally not available, although the concessioner counts the numbers of passengers using the shuttle buses and tours. Very high volumes of visitors can be observed using the multi-use paved trails, especially in the east Valley during the summer. After finding a parking place, visitors are encouraged to leave their vehicles behind and use the shuttle buses and trails in the Valley because of high parking demand on typically busy days.

In Wawona, observations show that visitors tend not to circulate through the area as much, though no formal data have been collected. In Wawona, overnight visitors stay in the Wawona Hotel, in private lodgings, or at the Wawona Campground. Visitors use private vehicles to travel in the Wawona area, although a free shuttle bus is available seasonally for accessing the Mariposa Grove.

In El Portal, most visitor activity is concentrated at lodging areas in the evenings and mornings, as overnight visitors typically travel from El Portal into the park each day. Some visitors stop to see the former Bagby train station and the historic railroad car exhibit (located in old El Portal), and swimming and fishing along the river are popular in the summer.

Recreational opportunities abound in Yosemite National Park in developed and wilderness areas alike; however, the types and quality of activities vary considerably between these two areas. Recreational opportunities are made more memorable because of the natural beauty of Yosemite Valley, Wawona, El Portal, and wilderness environments. These areas offer a wide range of recreational experiences for the visitor, including hiking, picnicking, camping, climbing, skiing, fishing, photography, swimming, nature study, stock use, bicycling, sightseeing, and rafting. The availability of one or more of these opportunities varies by location, particularly within the main stem and South Fork corridors. These recreational opportunities are grouped by river segment in table III-6 and further described below.

Camping throughout Yosemite National Park is regulated differently, depending on whether the activity occurs in the developed or wilderness areas. Public camping in the river corridor is provided at six campgrounds, including Wawona Campground on the South Fork, and North Pines, Backpackers, Upper Pines, and Lower Pines Campgrounds, and Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground) adjacent to the Merced River in Yosemite Valley. Camping is available on a year-round basis in both Wawona and the Valley. (Other campgrounds in the Valley damaged during the 1997 flood have since been closed, including Upper and Lower River Campgrounds, and the northwest end of Lower Pines Campground.)

There are no developed campgrounds on National Park Service land in El Portal, although there are campsites along the river just west of El Portal on U.S. Forest Service-administered land.

Several camping options are available, including drive-to (i.e., car or recreational vehicle) and walk-in campgrounds, a horse camp, and group and backpackers campsites. The Backpackers Campground in the Valley is intended for use by wilderness permit holders the night before entering and/or the night after leaving the wilderness. Visitor camping in the frontcountry is permitted only in designated campgrounds.

In the wilderness, backpackers can use campsites clustered in the Little Yosemite Valley Campground (a popular spot for hikers continuing to Half Dome), Moraine Dome Campground, and Merced Lake Backpackers Campground. In much of the wilderness, backpackers choose their own sites for camping, typically away from other campers.

According to a study of visitors exiting the park, about 90% of visitor groups reported sightseeing as an activity their parties participated in while in the park (Gramman 1992). Sixty percent of visitor parties took photographs, and more than half reported nature study as an element of their trip. Sitting or standing quietly, absorbed in thought or in awe of one of Yosemite's majestic views, was found to be basic to the park experience. Artistic pursuits and wildlife viewing were also important to the enjoyment of the park. Of all the awe-inspiring destinations in Yosemite National Park, Yosemite Falls is the most famous, most accessible, and most popular; the falls are visited by more than 2 million people each year. Spectacular views of Yosemite Valley and the Merced River corridor can be seen from Glacier Point, Washburn Point, and other vista points along the Valley rim.

Fishing is a popular activity in the park, particularly in the wilderness lakes within the Merced River and South Fork drainage basins, and in Yosemite Valley. Although various species of trout have been introduced into the park's waters, only brown trout and rainbow trout are sufficiently common for routine fishing. Brown trout are most abundant in waters where there is less current and in the larger lakes, while rainbow trout are more abundant in waters of higher current. Brook trout can be found in smaller numbers in waters in the higher elevations.

Fishing in Yosemite National Park is bound by the same regulations that apply elsewhere in the state and are enforced by the National Park Service. However, the National Park Service has added special trout catch regulations inside the park. In the reach between the Happy Isles Bridge and Pohono Bridge, fishing is "catch-and-release" only for rainbow trout, with normal limits on brown trout and no bait fishing.

Visitors enjoy fishing in the segment of the Merced River from Parkline to the El Portal gas station, and fly-fishing is common from Pohono Bridge to Cascades Diversion Dam. The most popular fishing segment in El Portal is near the wastewater treatment plant and Foresta Bridge and is accessible from the road. Downstream of Patty's Hole in the El Portal reach is a popular area for fly-fishing generally beginning in May. Guided fly-fishing tours, which are permitted by the National Park Service, are available in this area. On the South Fork, most fishing takes place downstream of the water intake and impoundment area, primarily for brown and rainbow trout. The high country headwater areas of both rivers have mountain ponds and alpine lakes as well as snowmelt and ephemeral streams within their boundaries. Of the 1,591 lakes in the park, about half are currently expected to contain fish from various historic stocking programs. Fishing in the wilderness lakes is a popular activity for visitors, particularly Merced Lake High Sierra Camp visitors who tend to fish in Washburn and Merced Lakes. Wilderness lakes support relatively good brown trout and rainbow trout populations.

Swimming and wading in the Merced River corridor is popular during the summer months, especially in El Portal. About 25% of summer visitors swim during their visit. The National Park Service does not officially designate swimming areas. While there are no particular rules regulating swimming in the river, the park encourages visitors to avoid fast-moving water and unsafe pools above waterfalls. In the Valley, swimming is a popular activity in the Merced River, Tenaya Creek, and at Mirror Lake. Most sections of the river in Yosemite Valley are within easy access from lodging areas, campgrounds, and day-use areas. Many of these areas are heavily used, particularly where they are adjacent to developed campgrounds and upstream or downstream of certain bridges, such as Stoneman and Swinging Bridges. Two public pools (at Yosemite Lodge and Curry Village) and a guest pool at The Ahwahnee are also heavily used.

In the wilderness, swimming is enjoyed in certain reaches of the Merced River downstream of various cascades, including Bunnell Cascades. Swimming also takes place in the vicinity of Moraine Dome and in the many lakes in the upper reaches, particularly Merced Lake and Washburn Lake, both of which are within the river corridor.

During the summer, visitors and residents alike swim along the gorge reach of the river. From Cascades Diversion Dam downstream to an area known as Steamboat Bay, and to Arch Rock, there are numerous swimming holes along the Merced River, some more accessible than others.

In El Portal, Patty's Hole is a well-known swimming location just west of the El Portal Market. The 1997 flood washed out a number of trees that had shielded this segment of the river from Highway 140, increasing public awareness of and accessibility to the swimming area.

In the South Fork, swimming is common in the vicinity of Swinging Bridge, alongside the Wawona Campground, and near the picnic area east of the campground. In recent years, swimming has also become more popular from Swinging Bridge downstream through the town of Wawona. Access to the river downstream of Swinging Bridge is somewhat limited due to private property holdings. Pools also exist in the upper reaches of the South Fork and are used by wilderness visitors.

Picnicking in the Valley is enjoyed by visitors and takes the form of lunch on riverside boulders, a bench near the visitor center, or a shady spot along a wilderness trail; and automobile-based picnicking on a "tailgate" or with charcoal, grills, and coolers. A large number of visitors use a picnic area during their visit to the park. Four designated picnic areas (providing grills, picnic tables, etc.) are provided in Yosemite Valley: Cathedral Beach, Sentinel Beach, El Capitan, and Swinging Bridge. Church Bowl, near Yosemite Village, has only picnic tables and serves as an informal picnic site. There is a picnic area at the Cascades and also a small picnic area at the Arch Rock Entrance Station. Some picnickers make use of outdoor seating associated with concessioner food service facilities. In Wawona, the picnic tables near the Pioneer Yosemite History Center and the Wawona Campground are heavily used by park visitors.

Yosemite Valley's granite walls draw thousands of climbers each year. Both day and multiday climbing occurs. The primary concessioner offers a mountaineering school in the Valley. Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground), near popular climbing routes and features, serves as an unofficial climber's camp. The camp is also shared by other park users and is the Valley's only first-come, first-served walk-in campground. Climbers often stage their trips (equipment preparation and parking) in turnouts near the start of their climbs. Because of the proximity of popular climbing walls to Valley roads and turnouts, climbing observation has also become a common visitor activity.

Rock climbing regularly occurs within the gorge reach as well. Most climbing takes place at Steamboat Bay and the Cookie (east of the Arch Rock Entrance Station) in the spring and fall, when higher elevations are unavailable due to inclement weather. Some visitors enjoy rock climbing or mountaineering on the cliff walls and domes in the upper reaches of the main stem and South Fork.

Forty-four percent of summer visitors arriving in their own car, and 32% of bus passengers reported day hiking while in the park. A greater proportion of park visitors hike during other seasons.

Visitors have access to Yosemite Valley trails that range from a short stroll to the base of Lower Yosemite Fall to an ambitious 17-mile round-trip day hike to the top of Half Dome. Thirty-five miles of hiking trails are available on the Yosemite Valley floor; many of these trails are shared with stock users and/or bicyclists. Several walking loops are available in the east Valley, and two loops in the west end – between Swinging Bridge and the El Capitan Bridge, and between El Capitan Bridge and Pohono Bridge. Day hikers can circumnavigate the Valley using the Valley Loop Trail, which is shared by stock. A trail network provides multiple routes between the Happy Isles/Mirror Lake area and Yosemite Village. Self-guiding interpretive trails can be found at Mirror Lake and Cook's Meadow near Yosemite Village. A multi-use paved trail (shared by pedestrians and bicyclists) links Yosemite Lodge to the Happy Isles area on both sides of the Merced River. Paved trails (the multi-use trails and roads closed to private vehicles) in the Valley are approved for use by visitors with pets. Heavy and multiple uses often create congestion on paved trails, especially in Yosemite Village. Several trails have wayside exhibits to interpret features encountered along the way.

Comparatively, there are fewer day-hiking opportunities in Wawona. Some trails parallel or lead to destinations along the river; a trail loops around the Wawona Meadow; and several trails lead to the wilderness, the Mariposa Grove, and other popular day-hiking destinations. Few visitors hike in the El Portal area, though day hiking is more common along the old Foresta Road and just west of El Portal along Incline Road.

Popular day hikes include destinations along trails shared by backpackers (e.g., the Mist and John Muir Trails to Vernal and Nevada Falls, the Four Mile Trail between Yosemite Valley and Glacier Point, the Upper Yosemite Fall Trail; and in Wawona, the Chilnualna Falls Trail).

Bicycling is a common means of enjoying and exploring Yosemite Valley. Visitors can use approximately 12 miles of paved bike trails that provide access to all the major developed areas in the Valley. Bicycles are available for rent in Yosemite Valley; approximately 45,000 were rented in Yosemite Valley in 1998, with August the peak month for use in all years. Additionally, many visitors bring their own bicycles to the Valley, particularly overnight users.

The Yosemite Guide, the park's free newspaper, contains a map of all Valley bicycling routes. A few wayside exhibits can be found along bike paths and at popular destinations. Bicycling is restricted to designated paved trails and roads and is not allowed on pedestrian or unpaved trails. Some road segments. Happy Isles Loop and the road to Mirror Lake. are closed to most vehicular traffic and provide relatively safe bicycle access. However, no bicycle trails exist in the west Valley, where bicyclists must share the often-crowded Northside and Southside Drives with motorists.

Bicycling is much less common in other areas of the park due primarily to the lack of paved trails. It is prohibited in the wilderness.

During the summer months in Yosemite Valley, visitors can rent rafts through the primary concessioner at Curry Village if water levels are sufficient. Rafting has been popular in the Valley for about 17 years, and all rafting is self-guided. In June 1999, some 15,000 people rented 4,000 rafts (Yosemite Concession Services 1999). Limited rafting occurs on the South Fork between Swinging Bridge and Wawona Campground. In this reach, the river's gradient is relatively flat.

Rafting regulations have been implemented to protect river habitat and provide for visitor safety in the Valley. In general, park management encourages visitors to launch and remove rafts at sand bars and beach locations. (Rafting regulations can be found in the Superintendent's Compendium.)

The concessioner must use designated areas for launching and removal of non-motorized watercraft. There is a raft launch site on the downstream side of Stoneman Bridge, where the river typically has slow-moving water during the summer months.

The presence of large woody debris in the channel poses potential risk to rafters, and park and concession staff attempt to warn visitors engaged in rafting activities of this hazard.

Kayaks are occasionally used on the river in Yosemite Valley and on the South Fork downstream of Wawona. A limited amount of white-water rafting and kayaking also takes place on the Merced River along the El Portal Administrative Site. Since approximately 1984, commercial rafting operations have launched rafts just downstream of Red Bud Picnic Area (outside of the El Portal Administrative Site) through an agreement with the Bureau of Land Management. Private rafters also launch near the gas station in El Portal, although this is not a heavily used area.

In the summer months of 1990-1991, about 9% of parties arriving in their own vehicles and about 3% of bus parties reported horseback riding as an activity in which some of their group participated while in the park.

Both commercial and private stock uses are currently found in Yosemite Valley and in Wawona. Commercial stock use and boarding are available through the concessioner at the stable located in the east Valley. Stock boarding is available in Wawona at the concessioner's stable, and a horse camp near the Wawona Information Station is available for visitors who wish to camp with their stock.

Except where posted, all designated trails in the park are open to stock and are maintained to accommodate stock traffic. Stock can be used on nonpaved paths that connect the east and west Valley, but paved roads and trails generally may not be used, except where crossing is necessary.

In the wilderness, overnight parties are limited to 25 head of stock and 15 people. Grazing is permitted, except within four miles of trailheads and paved roads or immediately surrounding the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp. Stock use numbers vary from year to year, largely due to environmental and trail conditions.

The primary concessioner offers various stock trips in Yosemite Valley, as well as to the wilderness from various locations including Yosemite Valley, Wawona, and Tuolumne Meadows. In the Valley and in Wawona, available trips include a two-hour ride, a half-day trip, and a full-day trip (see table III-7). Two-hour trail rides are by far the most popular, with over 11,000 people participating in 1998 (Yosemite Concession Services 1999). These rides also offer an opportunity for individuals with mobility impairments to experience the wilderness.

About 2,500 trips annually are led up the Vernal and Nevada Falls corridor. About 14,000 trail ride trips originate each year from the Valley concessioner's stable. Additionally, commercial stock are used to guide overnight pack trips and for freight trips (10 mules, three times per week) to supply Merced Lake High Sierra Camp.

In Yosemite Valley, tennis is played on courts at The Ahwahnee, but the 1992 Concession Services Plan prescribed their removal. A tennis court is also available at the Wawona Hotel.

Golf is available in Wawona at the historic Wawona Golf Course (established in 1918). The length of time the course is open varies year by year, depending on weather conditions, but is open June through October most years. Use ranges from 1,100 to 3,400 visitors per month (Yosemite Concession Services 1999).

Many activities are available for park visitors during the winter months, including cross-country skiing and snowshoeing. Most ski routes follow summer trails or traverse the open meadows. At the 4,000-foot elevation, Yosemite Valley and Wawona sometimes have little or no snow for long periods, and snow at lower elevations is rare. Ice skating is available at a concession-operated rink at Curry Village and is popular in the winter among both visitors and residents. Yosemite Valley serves as a primary lodging center for visitors pursuing winter recreation in wilderness and other areas, particularly the Badger Pass downhill and cross-country ski area. Some cross-country skiing also takes place on Wawona Meadow and the golf course.

The National Park Service provides visitors with published information regarding Yosemite National Park in many different formats, including the free Yosemite Guide newspaper, free park brochure/map, and supplemental education materials (a translation of the park brochure is available in German, French, Spanish, and Japanese). This range of information provides orientation to the park's roads, features, facilities, services, and trails. It also serves as a primer on Yosemite's natural and cultural history and scenic beauty. Further, park staff offer a wide range of media (e.g., the orientation audio-visual program at the visitor center) and interpretive programs to assist visitors in understanding the park's natural history and resources.

Visitors can access information about Yosemite National Park both before and during their visit. Web sites for the National Park Service, the primary concessioner, and other park partners provide trip planning information, and the park's public information office mails previsit materials to those requesting it by phone or mail. Upon arrival, visitors receive the park newspaper and map at entrance stations. There are two visitor centers in the park: one at Tuolumne Meadows that is open during the summer season, and the principal visitor center at Yosemite Village that is open all year. The Wilderness Center in Yosemite Village provides wilderness trip planning assistance. Each center sells park guidebooks and other resources to help orient visitors to the park. The Valley Visitor Center also offers a multilingual orientation video entitled One Day in Yosemite.

Information is available from seasonal information centers at Wawona and Big Oak Flat, and from registration staff at campgrounds and lodging. Commercial bus operators also provide orientation and information to visitors being transported to and from the park. Visitors can gain limited information from roadside signs throughout the Valley.

Park interpreters serve a primary resource preservation role by conveying information and educational programs to visitors and park employees about the importance of park ecosystems and the relationship between various park resources. This includes educational programs provided by park rangers and the park partners. The interpretive staff provides information to visitors about wilderness resources, policies, regulations, conditions, and trails at information centers, in programs, and on roving contact assignments. Interpretation programs offered by the park may be instrumental in providing education and thus lessening or preventing resource impacts. A proactive interpretation and education program is important to promote protection of natural resources for the long-term enjoyment of park visitors.

A wide range of interpretive programs is available (see table III-8). Park interpreters from the National Park Service, concessioner, and park partner organizations provide both structured and informal programs for park visitors, including walks, talks, evening programs, exhibits, and school programs. Programs can focus on bears, wildflowers, the natural history of Yosemite Valley and the wilderness, the hydrologic attributes of the Merced River, minimum-impact camping techniques, wilderness safety, park policies, and other topics. Programs range in duration from less than one hour to all-day hikes to multiday seminars and residential field science experiences. Interpretive hikes venturing into the Yosemite wilderness aim to support wilderness management by increasing visitor understanding of park resources and management concerns. Interpretive staff is also responsible for producing informational materials and handouts for distribution at visitor centers and through the park public information office.

Park partners, including the Yosemite Association, Yosemite Concession Services, and Yosemite Institute, offer a range of programs at many facilities in or nearby Yosemite Village and Wawona, as well as wilderness excursions. Yosemite Theater performances take place in the auditorium at the Valley Visitor Center and feature live music and dramatic presentations relating to Yosemite's human and natural history. The Indian Cultural Exhibit and the Indian Village of Ahwahnee Interpretive Center at the Yosemite Museum offer programs on American Indian culture that often feature demonstrations of traditional skills and storytelling. The Yosemite Cemetery provides another glimpse into Yosemite history with the gravesites of prominent Yosemite settlers and Indian families. The Yosemite Museum presents changing exhibits from the Yosemite Collection; its research library is open to the public and contains historic photographs and written documentation on all facets of Yosemite National Park. In the spring through fall, the Art Activity Center offers free outdoor art classes in a variety of mediums with visiting artists, and The Ansel Adams Gallery offers Yosemite-related photography exhibits as well as photography walks and workshops. In addition, various individuals and tour bus operators are granted permits to provide interpretive and other guided trips in the park.

Visitors have access to interpretive programs on the park's natural and cultural history via the amphitheaters at Yosemite Lodge, Curry Village, Lower Pines Campground, and Wawona Campground. Interpretive wayside exhibits are located on trails, at important features, and at roadside turnouts throughout Yosemite Valley. The Sierra Club leads interpretive walks in coordination with the National Park Service (many of which are geared especially for children), and operates the LeConte Memorial Lodge, a historic structure that houses exhibits and a library. The Nature Center at Happy Isles provides hands-on exhibits for children and adults. The Pioneer Yosemite History Center at Wawona is a collection of historic buildings relocated from other areas of the park and used to interpret the early history of Yosemite's settlers and evolution of the park preservation idea. A living history program is offered in the summer and an overnight environmental education program for school groups each spring.

Only a small percentage of visitors to the park participate in ranger-led interpretive activities. Of the 60-75% aware of these programs, about 15% participate.

Overnight lodging is available in Yosemite Valley at four concessioner-operated facilities: Yosemite Lodge, Housekeeping Camp, Curry Village, and The Ahwahnee. Concessioner-operated lodging is also available in Wawona at the historic Wawona Hotel. Private lodging is available along the corridor in El Portal and Wawona. Lodging is also available to wilderness visitors in the Merced River corridor at the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp, a potential Wilderness addition.

During the summer, lodging rooms and campsites in Yosemite Valley are usually 100% occupied on weekends and on many weekdays. In the Valley, a total of 1,260 lodging units provide a range of lodging accommodations, from both experiential and economic perspectives. The 1992 Concession Services Plan prescribed a reduction of Yosemite Valley lodging units from 1992 levels to 1,215 units.

Yosemite Lodge.Yosemite Lodge, about 40 acres, contains 245 motel and cottage units. (Pine and Oak Cottages as well as cabins with and without baths that were damaged by the January 1997 flood have been removed.) In addition, there is a main lodge and registration center, two restaurants and a cafeteria, a bar and lounge, a gift and general merchandise store, a specialty gift shop, bike rental, postal station, and post-flood temporary employee housing. The Concession Services Plan provides for the replacement of units previously in the floodplain, bringing the total number of units to 440 for Yosemite Lodge.

Housekeeping Camp. There are currently 264 units available for use by visitors at Housekeeping Camp. Each unit (one-half of a duplex structure) can accommodate 6 people, with a total of 12 per structure. Food preparation is allowed in Housekeeping Camp, thereby increasing its popularity with visitors. Also available in the complex are a small camp store, a laundry, and a shower facility. The Concession Services Plan prescribes a reduction of units (to 232) for Housekeeping Camp to remove units from the floodplain.

Curry Village. The Historic District at Curry Village, about 50 acres, offers a total of 628 units, including cabins with and without private baths, tent cabins, and rooms in Stoneman Lodge. Food service is available in the cafeteria and fast-food outlets. Other facilities include a grocery and gift shop, bike rental, post office, a mountain sport shop for camping supplies and equipment, information and registration buildings, and employee housing. Post-flood temporary housing for concessioner employees occupies the Huff House site. The ice rink operates in the winter, and raft and bicycle rentals are provided at this location in the summer. The Concession Services Plan prescribed a reduction of units (to 420 units) to remove tent cabins from geohazard zones and to decrease density. It also called for replacing cabins without baths with cabins with private bathrooms.

The Ahwahnee. The Ahwahnee, a 12-acre National Historic Landmark, provides 123 deluxe hotel rooms and cottages. Visitor services include a dining room, a snack shop, a gift shop, and a bar and lounge. Employee tent cabins and a dormitory are adjacent to The Ahwahnee.

Wawona Hotel. The historic Wawona Hotel provides 104 hotel rooms. Visitor services include a dining room and lounge, golf shop and snackbar, swimming pool, and tennis court. Employee tent cabins are adjacent on the former site of the Sequoia Hotel. On the grounds is the historic Hill's Studio, operated by the National Park Service to periodically display interpretive exhibits.

Merced Lake High Sierra Camp. Of the five High Sierra Camps in Yosemite National Park, the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp is the largest and the most remote in terms of road access.^[23] It is located on the east end of Merced Lake at 7,150 feet and can serve a capacity of 60 guests. Its water source is the Merced River. The Merced Lake High Sierra Camp is open only during the summer months, with opening and closing dates dependent on weather conditions. While many guests have returned here year after year, most guests are first-time visitors to the camp as well as to the wilderness.

Some overnight visitors arrive via stock from other High Sierra Camps. Twenty-two tents are located on site, each of which can accommodate two to four people. Two of these tents are used to house employees, and one is set aside for wranglers traveling with stock. Showers and flush toilets are available, and a dining hall accommodates 70 people. The camp also serves meals to backpackers that are passing through. All refuse is packed out by stock, and solids from the septic system are flown out by helicopter. Helicopters are also used to accommodate transportation of certain supplies and to respond to medical emergencies.

About 27% of the 1990-1991 parties arriving via private vehicle in the summer reported camping while in the park (Gramann 1992). Of these, about 15% were recreational vehicle (RV) users. There are slight decreases in tent camping and slight increases in RV camping in other seasons.

As described above under Recreation, a variety of camping experiences is available in the corridor. A total of 475 campsites are available in Yosemite Valley and 93 sites in Wawona. Valley campgrounds include Lower Pines, Upper Pines, and North Pines Campgrounds, Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground), and the Backpackers Campground. (Several campgrounds were damaged in the January 1997 flood; as a result, some additional campgrounds and sites are no longer in use.) An RV dump station is located at the entrance to Upper Pines Campground.

About 37,000 reservations are made for Valley campgrounds each year, of which roughly 33,000 are for dates between May and September.

The main stem of the Merced River provides some of the most popular camping opportunities in Yosemite's wilderness. As much as 20% of wilderness use originates from the John Muir Trailhead at Happy Isles. While the majority of the camping occurs in the designated campgrounds at Little Yosemite Valley and Merced Lake Backpackers Campgrounds, significant dispersed camping also occurs within the corridor. Users must comply with regulatory and "leave no trace" conditions, but generally may camp at least 100 feet from any water source and at least four miles from populated areas, except in the Designated Overnight zones, where they must camp in the campgrounds listed above. These campgrounds were established to concentrate high levels of use and minimize potential impacts.

About 35% of visitors arriving in the park via private vehicle eat at a sit-down restaurant, 30% eat at a fast-food establishment, 30% buy groceries, 15% purchase books, 30% shop for souvenirs, and 15% shop for clothes while in the Valley. These percentages all increase for bus passengers, with the exception of grocery shopping (Gramann 1992).

Yosemite Village, which is approximately 90 acres, is the core area for most of the development and day use in Yosemite Valley. Many facilities are located at this site, including the visitor center, a seasonal Wilderness Center, National Park Service employee housing, administrative offices, maintenance facilities, The Ansel Adams Gallery, the Yosemite Museum, the Art Activity Center, the main Yosemite National Park post office, Degnan's Delicatessen and gift shop, the Village Store complex, an ATM and check cashing facility, and a concessioner garage that is open to visitors.

A medical and dental clinic is located toward the east end of Yosemite Village. The clinic serves developed Valley areas and provides general medical and emergency service to visitors and residents. It also operates an ambulance to respond to medical emergencies throughout the park.

Food, retail, and other visitor services are available at Yosemite Village, Yosemite Lodge, Curry Village, The Ahwahnee, and at the Wawona Hotel and other locations in Wawona. A snack stand is located at Happy Isles. Dining is also available in the wilderness for a limited number of hikers in addition to guests at the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp. A service station is located in Wawona and a garage in Yosemite Village.

Concessioner stables are located in Wawona and Yosemite Valley.

In El Portal, park visitors have access to a gas station, general store, restaurant, gift shop, and post office.

The Yosemite wilderness offers an escape from human-made structures, crowds, artificial light, and noise (with the exception of planes overhead), and allows visitors to experience solitude, natural quiet, and spectacular scenery. The vast wilderness also allows visitors to explore and discover the incredible natural beauty of the many geologic features, the rivers, streams, lakes, and the many species of plants and animals. Many visitors find that they can hike for considerable lengths of time without encountering other people in the wilderness. The remote areas of the wilderness provide outstanding opportunities for solitude and a primitive and unconfined type of recreation. This is the basis of a "wilderness experience."

The Yosemite Wilderness was established by the California Wilderness Act of 1984. The area is generally defined by the Tuolumne River and Merced River drainages, with lands ranging in elevation from 2,900 feet below Wawona to 13,114 feet at the summit of Mt. Lyell. Of Yosemite National Park's 761,266 total acres, 704,624 acres (93%) have been designated Wilderness, and another 927 acres (0.1%) are potential Wilderness additions. Glacial activity reformed the landscape, carving as many as 350 lakes, along with hundreds of ponds and wetland areas. The wilderness also includes hundreds of miles of intermittent streams that drain into the Tuolumne and Merced Rivers.

The Yosemite Wilderness occurs in two large blocks north and south of the Tioga Road. National Park Service staff who work in the Wilderness District include patrol, public contact, and administrative staff. Wilderness District employees work primarily to provide service to wilderness visitors and to protect park resources.

The wilderness area is generally accessed by the almost 800 miles of marked and maintained trails, as well as several hundred miles of cross-country routes. Overall use and access to the wilderness within the Merced River corridor is controlled by trailhead quotas implemented through a wilderness permit system administered by the National Park Service. Trailhead quotas have been established to reduce resource impacts and to increase opportunities for solitude. In comparison to the developed areas, visitor use is significantly less.

Wilderness use statistics have been calculated for several years. Most visitors to the wilderness were from California (78%), with 18.6% from out of state, 0.4% from Canada, and 3% from other countries (National Park Service 1993e). Most wilderness permit holders originate their trips at one of the many trailheads in the Valley. In general, 95% of the permits requested are for groups of approximately 3 people; approximately 5% of the permits requested are for groups of an average of 11 people. The average stay for groups in the wilderness is approximately 2.5 days.

Use of the Yosemite Wilderness has decreased over the last few years and appears to be linked primarily to environmental conditions. In 1996, 49,735 people obtained wilderness use permits for a total of 143,801 nights. These figures decreased to 45,948 and 114,133, respectively, the following year. In 1996, when the snowpack was 110% of average, there were three significant rockfalls that closed major trails, and the largest fire in Yosemite's history burned over 62,000 acres of wilderness in the late summer. In 1997, the January flooding of the Valley resulted in a three-month closure of the entire park. The following year (1998), the snowpack was 160% of average; the melt came late in the season and was very gradual. Many hikers were deterred by snow-covered trails; use figures (drawn from wilderness permits only) dropped to 37,096, while the number of nights decreased to 89,133.

Multiple trails originate from the Yosemite Valley floor and lead to the wilderness. Backpackers often begin their hikes into the wilderness along the Mist and John Muir Trails, which parallel the Merced River and Vernal and Nevada Falls. Wilderness travelers also use the Upper Yosemite Fall Trail on the Valley's northern rim, and the Four Mile Trail, which provides access to Glacier Point. Approximately 6% of summer visitors backpack during their visit to Yosemite, and up to 25% of overnight users initiate trips into Yosemite's wilderness and beyond from the Valley floor. Additional trails skirt the perimeter of Yosemite Valley above the Valley floor. Hikers on these trails frequently value the solitude and greater number of pristine and inspiring views that are available in the wilderness. The human-built environment may still dominate many views into the Valley from the rim trails; however, backpackers that continue into the upper reaches of the river corridor will find minimal development. The ratio of day visitors to wilderness visitors begins to change as trails switch back beyond their lowest elevation features. Of the trails in the Merced River corridor that originate in the Valley, the Vernal/Nevada Falls trails are most commonly used to access the wilderness. Access to the South Fork high country is most often from adjacent National Forest land or from Wawona.

Camping is generally allowed anywhere in the wilderness provided it is at least 100 feet from any water body. Camping is discouraged in sensitive areas (i.e., meadows, other areas with fragile vegetation). In some areas, there are no-camping or no-fire zones. No-camping zones include all areas within one mile of public access roads and within four trail-miles of Yosemite Valley, Tuolumne Meadow, Wawona, and Hetch Hetchy. Campfires are generally allowed below 9,600 feet, although restrictions exist in certain areas. Toilets have been installed in most designated campgrounds, with the exception of Moraine Dome, as well as food storage devices. The control of human waste is among the most critical management issues in the wilderness. Other practices designed to minimize or eliminate impact are either recommended or required.

The High Sierra Camps are among the areas legislated as "potential Wilderness additions" in the California Wilderness Act. This designation was applied to those areas in wilderness where an existing use precluded full Wilderness designation. Congress anticipated that if the operation of such facilities were terminated, the site would be restored and the area designated as Wilderness.

The Yosemite wilderness has 69 trailheads starting within the park, and 48 trailheads on U.S. Forest Service lands, that access almost 800 miles of marked trails. These trails are maintained by the National Park Service with crews augmented by California Conservation Corp members. The development of "volunteer" or "social" trails continues to be problematic, as these trails lead to trampling of vegetation as well as erosion, which can cause more significant biological and water quality problems. National Park Service rangers patrol the wilderness area on foot, skis, or horseback. All marked and maintained wilderness trails are open to private and commercial stock, with minor exception. Stock are generally not allowed more than one-quarter mile off marked and maintained trails, and then only for feeding and watering. Hikers in groups of eight persons or less are allowed to use cross-country routes and are encouraged to practice minimum-impact techniques.

Social Resources

The 1980 General Management Plan divided land within Yosemite National Park into four primary zones and six sub-zones based on management objectives, resource significance, and legislative constraints. The General Management Plan zoning is broad-based and was meant to give general guidance for future implementation of specific plans. The four primary zones identified in the General Management Plan and their basic management strategies are described below. These zones may overlap, and thus management decisions must be based on equal recognition of resources.

This zone includes lands and waters that are managed in order to conserve natural resources and ecological processes and to provide for visitor use and enjoyment in ways that will not adversely affect natural environments. This zone includes all lands in the following four sub-zones: wilderness, environmental protection, outstanding natural features, and natural environment. Areas classified as natural zones make up almost 98% of the park. (Note: some areas have more than one designation, which is why the percentages add up to more than 100.)

This zone is managed for the preservation, protection, and interpretation of cultural resources and their settings while providing for visitor use and enjoyment. This zone is composed of significant architectural, historic, and archeological resources that will be preserved unless such action causes unacceptable alteration of natural resources and/or processes. These areas are identified within two sub-zones, the historic and archeological sub-zones. In 1980, it was estimated that areas classified as Cultural zones make up almost 3% of the park. Since that time, both cultural landscapes and traditional cultural properties have been included, as have many additions as listings or nominations to the National Register of Historic Places. To date, only a small portion of the park has been surveyed.

This zone includes lands managed to provide and maintain roads and facilities serving visitors and park operations. Areas classified as Development zones make up about 2% of the park. No sub-zones are within the development zone.

This zone includes lands and waters used for activities that are not appropriate in other zones. The reservoir sub-zone includes Lake Eleanor and Hetch Hetchy reservoirs, which are managed by the San Francisco Water Department under the terms of the Raker Act. The Special Use zone also includes private parcels in Wawona, Foresta, and Aspen Valley, as well as parcels managed by the City and County of San Francisco. Areas classified as Special Use zones make up less than 0.5% of the park. No sub-zones are within the Special Use zone.

Land use within and adjacent to the Merced River corridor through Yosemite National Park is primarily publicly managed parkland, with some areas of private ownership within and adjacent to the Merced River corridor. The gross area within the park's authorized boundary is 761,266 acres. This includes nonfederal ownership totaling 1,736 acres, of which approximately 10 acres are easements. There are 366 privately owned tracts within the park boundaries, totaling 233 acres, much of which is within the Merced River corridor (as defined in the 1996 Draft Yosemite Valley Housing Plan) in Wawona and El Portal. Local governments manage 21 tracts within the park boundaries, totaling 1,502 acres.

The majority of land surrounding the park is publicly managed by the U.S. Forest Service, which administers four national forests that border the park: Stanislaus, Toiyabe, Inyo, and Sierra. These lands are managed for general forest, wilderness, and dispersed recreation use. The U.S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management produced a management plan (1991b) for the portions of the Merced River designated as Wild and Scenic within their jurisdictions and are planning to update that plan in the future. The region surrounding the park includes four counties: Mariposa, Tuolumne, Madera, and Mono. Cooperative planning efforts between federal, state, and county agencies within the region have addressed critical natural, cultural, and recreational resource concerns and management policies. Yosemite management has worked with interagency groups to coordinate long-range planning activities with surrounding landowners and land management agencies.

The majority of land within Yosemite National Park is designated Wilderness. The main stem of the Merced River traverses wilderness from its headwaters to a point approximately one-half mile upstream of Nevada Fall, where the river enters Yosemite Valley. With the exception of the privately held lands and the National Park Service . administered lands in the Wawona area and westward to the border of the park, the entire length of the South Fork of the Merced River in Yosemite flows through wilderness. Land use within the Merced River corridor is described below.

Main Stem of the Merced River

Wilderness. Almost 95% of Yosemite is designated Wilderness, which includes a small amount of land currently designated as potential Wilderness additions. Wilderness areas are classified as Natural zones in the 1980 General Management Plan. Structures located in the wilderness portions of the Merced River corridor are limited to the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp (seven buildings and 22 tent cabins), toilet facilities at the two backpackers campgrounds, and ten bridges and other support facilities.

Yosemite Valley. The Valley is classified as a Natural zone, Cultural zone, and/or Development zone in accordance with the 1980 General Management Plan. The Valley contains major developments, such as Yosemite Village, Yosemite Lodge, The Ahwahnee, Curry Village, and several campgrounds; only a few structures are located within the Merced River corridor. (See the Park Operations and Facilities section for a description of National Park Service and concessioner facilities within or bordering the Merced River corridor in Yosemite Valley.)

Merced River Gorge. The majority of the Merced River gorge is undisturbed and is bordered on both sides by designated Wilderness. The gorge is classified as a Natural zone in accordance with the 1980 General Management Plan. Facilities within the Merced River corridor in the gorge include the Cascades Diversion Dam, which was built in 1918 to deliver water to a now-decommissioned powerhouse, and the Arch Rock Entrance Station, which includes several National Park Service structures and a small picnic area. At several points within the gorge is an above-ground electric transmission line that serves Yosemite Valley. At several points within the gorge is an above-ground electric transmission line that supplies power to Yosemite Valley, four houses at Cascades, and the historic powerhouse building.

El Portal. The El Portal Administrative Site is a 1,398-acre area adjacent to the western park boundary of Yosemite National Park about 1.5 miles west of Arch Rock. El Portal was designated as an administrative area in 1958 following the passage of federal legislation (USC Section 16, Sec. 47-1) that authorized the acquisition of private lands and a land transfer with the U.S. Forest Service. Its purpose is to "to preserve the extraordinary natural qualities of Yosemite National Park" by allowing the National Park Service to locate employee housing, administrative offices, and maintenance facilities outside the park, thus avoiding the impacts of developing such facilities within the park. Facilities located at El Portal include park administration buildings, employee residential areas, wastewater treatment plant, and limited community facilities. Adjacent private lands provide visitor services, such as overnight lodging, gift sales, and restaurants. Part of the housing area is currently classified as a Development zone per the General Management Plan; the remainder is unclassified.

Residential areas at El Portal include Rancheria Flat, a National Park Service housing area with single-family residences, duplexes, and apartments; Trailer Village/Abbieville for National Park Service and concessioner employees; Village Center cabins for National Park Service employees; the El Portal Hotel, which houses Yosemite Institute employees and administrative facilities; and Old El Portal, with single-family homes for National Park Service and concessioner employees. Short-term special-use permits for these private homes on federal land are renewed every year by the National Park Service.

Other National Park Service facilities at El Portal include a wastewater treatment facility, the El Portal maintenance center, warehouse facility, an open-air storage/maintenance facility at Railroad Flat, and a former residence that was converted to National Park Service offices. Other government-owned facilities at El Portal include a school, post office, library, fire station, community hall, day care center, and a transportation exhibit highlighting the history of rail operations in the area. A concessioner operates a small government-owned grocery store. Privately owned facilities in El Portal include a hotel, a gas station, and a bulk fuel storage area. Also nearby is a sand pit that the National Park Service proposed in the General Management Plan as a Special Use zone.

Lands within the Merced River corridor downstream of the El Portal Administrative Site to the confluence of the river with Bear Creek are administered either by the U.S. Forest Service (Sierra National Forest) or the Bureau of Land Management (Folsom Resource Area). The Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and the National Park Service all have a general policy to purchase private lands along the Merced River as properties become available (see the discussion on private property under "Site-Specific Elements Common to the All Action Alternatives" in Chapter II).

A land exchange between the owner of Yosemite View Motels in El Portal and the National Park Service would allow the National Park Service to acquire approximately eight acres of privately held land near the park's boundary at an area known as "Parkline," in exchange for approximately eight acres of federal lands near the motel complex. This land exchange was authorized by Public Law 105-363, 16 USC 47-1, section 4, November 10, 1998, but will not be completed until finalization of this plan and necessary subsequent compliance. The land exchange would allow the National Park Service to develop additional facilities near the park's boundary in El Portal.

South Fork

Wilderness. Land along the South Fork upstream from Wawona to the headwaters of the river (approximately 25 miles) is entirely federally managed. Most of these lands within the Merced River corridor are administered by the National Park Service, with the exception of an approximately three-mile section where the National Park Service controls lands on the north side of the river and the U.S. Forest Service (Sierra National Forest) controls lands to the south of the river. From a point approximately 2.5 miles downstream from the Wawona Campground (at the western edge of the park boundary) to the confluence with the main stem, a distance of approximately 17 miles, lands along the South Fork are administered by the U.S. Forest Service (Sierra National Forest), which has produced its own plan for the lands it administers within the Merced River corridor.

Wawona. Wawona is located in the southwestern corner of the park, about 27 miles south of Yosemite Valley and 4.5 miles north of the park's South Entrance. Development at Wawona includes several National Park Service and concessioner facilities. Of these facilities, Wawona Campground, horse camp, Wawona Hotel, the golf course, several maintenance buildings, the water and wastewater treatment plants, store, gas station, Covered Bridge, and the Pioneer Yosemite History Center (containing 15 structures on 3.3 acres) are within the Merced River corridor. The area encompasses several land-use classifications as prescribed by the 1980 General Management Plan, including Development, Cultural, and Natural zones.

Several private and National Park Service. owned residences are in Section 35, the designation given by the U.S. Geological Survey on its maps of the one-square-mile area of land that defines the township of Wawona. Section 35 comprises 636 acres, 206 acres of which are privately held, while the remaining 430 acres are federal lands. There is a store on the privately owned portion of Section 35. The school and post office sit outside Section 35 on National Park Service land. The library is within Section 35; however, it sits on National Park Service land within an National Park Service building. All government housing within Section 35 is on National Park Service land. The 430 acres of federal lands in Section 35 were acquired over the past 50 years on an opportunity purchase basis. The developed portion of Section 35 is bounded on three sides by designated Wilderness. A total of 302 private tracts in Section 35 are interspersed among National Park Service . owned land. Some private tracts are less than one-half acre in size, and there are several tracts that exceed one acre in size. A 28.8-acre camp is operated by the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Most of the tracts are developed for seasonal or permanent residential use, and less than 10% are undeveloped. Several of these private tracts border the South Fork of the Merced River and are within the Merced River corridor.

In 1985, the National Park Service retroceded partial concurrent jurisdiction over civil matters in Section 35 to the State of California on private lands. In 1987, the National Park Service initiated a memorandum of agreement with Mariposa County to implement the retrocession, giving Mariposa County the needed authority to establish land-use regulation in Section 35. In October 1987, the National Park Service and Mariposa County jointly approved the Wawona Town Planning Area Specific Plan.

Proposed protection methods for the nonfederal areas within the park include long- and short-term strategies. Short-term protection strategies include land-use regulation at Wawona. Section 10(e) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act allows federal agencies to enter cooperative agreements with states and local governments in the administration of a river segment. While no incorporated cities exist within the corridor and no local zoning guidelines have been issued by the Secretary, it is the intent of the National Park Service to work with Mariposa County during the development of any future zoning ordinances to ensure that such zoning is consistent with the purposes of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. Under all alternatives, the National Park Service would continue to assist, advise, and cooperate with Mariposa County or its political subdivisions, private landowners, private organizations, and individuals to protect and manage private lands along the Merced River and to protect ORVs where nonfederal lands are within the river corridor. Land-use regulation will provide the primary protection at Wawona, along with opportunity purchases and land exchanges.

Private property within the river corridor is not zoned under any of the alternatives of the Merced River Plan. The Secretary of the Interior is authorized to acquire lands and interests in lands within the authorized boundaries of the main stem and South Fork of the Merced River under Section 6(a) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, and to use condemnation to acquire easements on lands within the corridor when necessary. The vast majority of lands within the river corridor are owned in fee title by the United States, and the National Park Service has no intention of acquiring additional lands in fee title by condemnation under authority of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. However, it is the intent of the National Park Service to work cooperatively with private landowners whenever possible within the corridor to ensure that ORVs of the river segment are protected and enhanced. Yosemite National Park is identified as an inholding area, and there is no acquisition ceiling for the park. Priorities include acquisition of tracts in Wawona within the Merced Wild and Scenic River corridor, and undeveloped land adjacent to open public areas.

Approved plans and policies that guide National Park Service land-use designation and related actions for lands within Yosemite National Park boundaries and adjacent lands administered by the National Park Service (El Portal) include: the 1980 Yosemite National Park General Management Plan; Management Policies, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service (1988a); National Park Service Concessions Services Plan (1992a); and the Yosemite Wilderness Management Plan (1989d). Approved plans and policies that guide land-use designation of nonfederal lands within the park include: Wawona Town Planning Area Specific Plan - Land Use Policies and Standards Element (1991); and the general plans for the four counties that surround the park.

State highways leading into Yosemite National Park (Highways 41, 120, and 140) (see figure III-1), transition into an internal parkwide road system at the entrance stations. California has no rights-of-way through the park, so there are no state highways within its boundaries; however, state highway numbers are used on park signs to help orient visitors. Additional transportation facilities within the park consist of a series of spur roads, access drives, pedestrian trails, bike paths, and parking areas leading from the main roads. The park has roughly 200 miles of roads, of which about 30 miles traverse the Valley floor. On an average summer (August) day in 1998, about 7,365 vehicles entered the park, consisting primarily of park visitors and park employees (who live along the Highway 140 corridor) (BRW, Inc. 1999). Vehicle entries generally are evenly spread among park entrance stations. During peak-season months, the South Entrance Station (Wawona Road/Highway 41) accommodated the highest percentage of entries at 29%. The Tioga Pass Entrance (Tioga Road/Highway 120 East) received 25% of entries, the Big Oak Flat Entrance (Big Oak Flat Road/Highway 120) West received 24%, and the Arch Rock Entrance (El Portal Road/Highway 140) handled 22% (BRW, Inc. 1999).

Major park roadways within the study corridors, in addition to traffic volume data recorded at fixed counter locations within the park, are described below.

El Portal Road is about 7.5 miles long within the park. At the park boundary, this road connects to Highway 140. The El Portal Road enters the park near the El Portal Administrative Site, passes through the Arch Rock Entrance Station, and continues to the Valley Loop Road near Pohono Bridge. It is maintained for year-round access and has been historically called the "All-Year Highway." The road is characterized by steep, rocky canyon walls with small river flats and terraces and had a typical pavement width of 19 feet prior to the current road improvement project.

Average daily traffic volumes entering at the Arch Rock Entrance Station in August 1998 were about 1,600 vehicles (BRW, Inc. 1999). Traffic volumes on the El Portal Road consisted of about 6% heavy vehicles (buses, recreational vehicles, and trucks). About 40% of bus volume entering Yosemite arrives via the El Portal Road, and during the off-peak winter months, carries up to 45% of the total traffic entering the park.

Big Oak Flat Road is about 18 miles long. It leads from the Big Oak Flat Entrance Station through Hodgdon Meadow and Crane Flat and intersects the El Portal Road one mile downstream from Pohono Bridge on the Valley floor (the Big Oak Flat Road also provides access to the Valley from the Tioga Pass Entrance). Outside the park, this road connects to Highway 120. Big Oak Flat Road may be used as a through route in conjunction with other major park roads and is maintained for year-round access. The topography changes from mountainous on the east end of the road to rolling at the west end. The paved roadway width ranges from 26 to 30 feet. Average daily traffic volumes entering at the Big Oak Flat Entrance Station in August 1998 were about 1,785 vehicles (BRW, Inc. 1999).

The Valley Loop Road is an approximately 12-mile-long combination one-way/two-way loop road that provides primary circulation within Yosemite Valley. It also connects the other major roads, facilitating through-park traffic, and is maintained for year-round use. The pavement width is about 21 feet and there are two travel lanes. Four bridges across the Merced River connect the roadway running parallel to the south Valley wall (Southside Drive) with the roadway on the north (Northside Drive). One-way operation is maintained along Southside Drive from Pohono Bridge at the west Valley to Stoneman Bridge near Curry Village. Two segments of one-way operation are maintained on Northside Drive. The first one-way section travels from Stoneman Bridge to Yosemite Village. The second one-way section travels from Yosemite Lodge to the Pohono Bridge. Two-way traffic is allowed between Yosemite Lodge and Yosemite Village on Northside Drive. In addition to Pohono and Stoneman Bridges, connections between Northside Drive and Southside Drive are provided at El Capitan Bridge, and at Sentinel Bridge near the Yosemite Chapel. Average daily traffic volumes in August 1998 were about 5,700 vehicles on Southside Drive and 6,030 vehicles on Northside Drive (BRW, Inc. 1999).^[24]

South Fork Corridor

Wawona Road is about 27 miles long within the park. At the south park boundary, this road connects to Highway 41. Wawona Road is the principal access to Wawona, Mariposa Grove, Badger Pass Ski Area, Glacier Point, and Yosemite Valley and is maintained for year-round access. Throughout its length, the 24-foot-wide road travels over mountainous terrain with steep grades and is surrounded by moderate to dense forest. It should be noted that the South Fork Bridge, an important link of this road, is condemned, and traffic has been detoured onto a temporary bridge. As such, this route is vulnerable to flooding and washouts and may not always be accessible. Average daily traffic volumes entering at the South Entrance Station in August 1998 were about 2,120 vehicles (BRW, Inc. 1999).

Traffic Conditions

Daily traffic volumes recorded at fixed counter locations within the park indicate a historical trend of growth in traffic, but traffic volumes do not exceed the capacity of any of the major roadways. Even on the busiest summer days, travelers on park roads encounter only minor to moderate congestion. However, at key activity areas (popular attractions, parking areas, and major intersections) and at the park entrance stations, moderate to major congestion occurs. Disruptions to traffic flow are often attributed to excessive circulation by visitors and tour bus drivers seeking parking spaces.

The formal parking areas serving the most active visitor facilities are perpetually full. On summer weekends, parking spills out of the formal areas onto roadsides throughout the east Valley and at popular attraction areas in the west Valley. Traffic and pedestrian conflicts are common during periods of maximum visitation.

Merced River Corridor

Yosemite Valley. The roadway system in the Valley can be confusing to first-time visitors because of the one-way circulation, limited opportunities to cross the Merced River, and circuitous travel routes. Excess vehicle circulation is common (particularly in the area between Curry Village and Yosemite Village), as visitors seek the best routes to their destinations and search for limited parking spaces.^[25]

The Restricted Access Plan occasionally has been implemented to limit vehicle access. Traffic was diverted away from the Valley during peak visitation days when parking reached capacity, and congested conditions caused long backups at road intersections. Highly congested locations include the intersections along Northside Drive at Yosemite Village and at the entrance to the Yosemite Falls parking area. Both of these intersections are on the two-way segment of the loop road system. Other congestion points in the Valley include the four-way intersection near Curry Village and the intersection of Village Drive with The Ahwahnee access road at the north end of Yosemite Village. Traffic congestion in the Valley can cause frustrating delays to visitors in private vehicles, leads to increased vehicle emissions, and disrupts the operation of the Valley shuttle bus system.

Visitor traffic congestion historically has been exacerbated by the location of visitor parking facilities and by directional signs. For example, many visitors bound for Yosemite Lodge and day-visitor parking in the Camp 6 area near Yosemite Village are unnecessarily routed to the east end of the developed area and then to Yosemite Village via Northside Drive, traversing the most congested part of the road system.

El Portal Road. Prior to the current improvement project, this road operated at an unacceptable level of service, due to steep grade, minimal lane width, and inadequate lateral clearance. The typical level of service characterizations, however, may not be appropriate for roadways in the park, because the function of such roads is not to provide fast transportation but to provide safe and efficient accommodation of park visitors and to serve essential management access needs.^[26]

As stated above, the Restricted Access Plan is occasionally implemented on the busiest summer weekends when congestion is most severe. Congestion is monitored using qualitative factors, such as observations of traffic conditions and the judgment of park personnel. When congestion reaches unacceptable levels, access to Yosemite Valley is restricted, and, on some occasions, visitors are turned away at the park entrance stations. However, because the Restricted Access Plan is labor-intensive and diverts park staff from other operations, it was implemented infrequently from 1994 to 1996.

As stated above, the number of vehicles on park roads has increased over the years, but traffic volumes generally do not exceed the capacity of the roads. This conditions remains consistent along the South Fork of the Merced River where Wawona Road crosses, and then follows the river. Travelers encounter minor to moderate congestion on the busiest summer days.

Bus transportation in Yosemite National Park includes regional public transportation, charter and tour bus operators, concessioner-operated tours, and shuttle bus services provided by the park concessioner. With the exception of shuttle bus services in Tuolumne Meadows and to the Mariposa Grove from Wawona, nearly all buses travel to and from or within the Valley.

Charter and tour buses carried about 314,750 passengers to Yosemite Valley in 1998. The average daily ridership during the peak season (June to August) was about 1,390 passengers (on 63 buses). The average daily ridership during the off-peak season was about half that of the peak season, at about 720 passengers (on 28 buses) (BRW, Inc. 1999).

According to visitor surveys, about 49% of private-vehicle travelers and 55% of tour bus travelers use the Valley shuttle bus system. Daily ridership during the peak season can reach as high as 25,000 people, when the service operates from 7:30 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. daily.

In 1998, average daily passengers on the Valley tram during the peak-season months was about 520 riders, with a maximum daily passenger load of as high as about 1,000 riders (Yosemite Concession Services 1999).

Regional Bus Transit.VIA Adventures, operating out of Merced, provides regional bus service every day during the summer, three times per day, from Merced to Yosemite Valley. VIA Adventures also provides van service between Mariposa and Yosemite Valley five days per week. Connections are provided to two Amtrak trains operating through the Central Valley in Merced (BRW, Inc. 1999). On weekdays, the Midpines Commuter Bus (operated by the primary park concessioner for park employees) makes one round-trip between Midpines and Yosemite Valley, with a stop in El Portal for park employees (NPS 1999e).

Charter and Tour Buses. Charter bus activity has developed into a major component of visitor access. During the summer, an average of 63 commercial tour buses enter the park each day (BRW, Inc. 1999). All buses eventually make their way to Yosemite Valley; tours include day-visit itineraries and overnight stays. The number of buses simultaneously arriving and departing (i.e., "bunching") can be a problem in the park. Currently, there are no regulations that control or prevent bunching.

Valley Shuttle Bus System. The current shuttle bus system operates year-round in Yosemite Valley, offering service to the major developed areas at the east Valley. In addition, shuttle buses also operate between Yosemite Valley and Badger Pass during the winter season when the ski area is operating. During the summer months, a fleet of 10 shuttle buses operates every 5 to 10 minutes on an 8-mile loop with 19 stops. Fewer shuttle buses and a reduced schedule are operated for the remainder of the year.

The majority of the shuttle bus route follows public park-access roads. Short sections of the route use restricted sections of roadway. Conflicts are often created for the shuttle buses by vehicular traffic, pedestrians, and bicyclists. Frequently, passenger loads exceed the normal capacity of the buses. Delays in service can often be caused by the loading and unloading of overcrowded buses.

Valley Tours. Tours are available throughout the day for visitors seeking an informative and scenic experience in Yosemite Valley. Open-air trams (towed by a diesel truck-tractor) with a capacity of 70 passengers are used in summer to carry visitors along the Valley loop and to Tunnel View on the Wawona Road above the west Valley. The trams are usually at capacity from mid-morning to late afternoon.

Park Tours. A variety of tours is available for visitors choosing to explore Yosemite by means other than private vehicles. Services are provided by Yosemite Transportation System, which is operated by the concessioner. Several of these routes originate from the lodging facilities in Yosemite Valley.

Transit Ridership. Ridership data for the one regional transit operator (VIA Adventures) are not available.

In the spring through fall, free shuttle bus service operates between Wawona and Mariposa Grove. During the summer, VIA Adventures also provides regional service through Wawona, operating one bus per day to and from Fresno.

As described above, a variety of park tours by Yosemite Transportation System is available for visitors choosing to explore Yosemite by means other than private vehicles. In summer, daily trips from Yosemite Valley include a "hikers. bus" to Glacier Point and one to Tuolumne Meadows, and a tour bus to Wawona with a stop at the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias.

Visitor parking areas are provided in all the primary developed areas throughout Yosemite Valley. Scattered turnouts along the roads provide access to interpretive signs and viewpoints. Parking includes a combination of day-visitor and overnight lots, roadside turnouts, shared-use areas, and employee parking. Competition for limited parking is intense in the peak season.

Yosemite Valley is the area with the highest concentration of development and the most parking spaces in Yosemite National Park. Because of the extensive use of road shoulders for overflow parking during periods of high demand, and because many parking areas are not paved and marked, it is difficult to identify a specific parking supply. However, an inventory of parking used by visitors in areas of Yosemite Valley was conducted in February 1999.

The inventory indicates parking for up to about 1,660 day-visitor vehicles is available in the Valley, primarily at the Yosemite Falls parking lot, Village Store parking lot, Camp 6, Curry Orchard, and at various destinations and along the Northside and Southside Drive loop roads (BRW, Inc. 1999). Most of the day-visitor parking is also used by overnight visitors touring the Valley and by residents and commuting park employees. Many of the spaces are informal turnouts and other areas that are best suited to short-term use associated with auto touring. Parking for overnight guest vehicles is available at lodging, campground, and wilderness access areas.

The demand for parking in the Valley is affected by the number of people living and working in, and visiting the area. Parking demand varies during the day, and from day to day, as the number of day and overnight visitors and nonresident employees fluctuates. It is estimated that the highest number of overnight visitors and residents in Yosemite Valley occurs late Saturday nights during the summer.

On crowded summer days, most formal parking is fully occupied, with parking spilling onto the roadway shoulders throughout the east Valley. This uncontrolled parking leads to pedestrian, bike, and vehicular conflicts, damage to vegetation and soils along the road edge, and the formation of social trails.

Parking is provided in Wawona for visitors and employees associated with facilities such as the Wawona Hotel complex, the Wawona grocery story and gift shop, the Pioneer Yosemite History Center, a campground, and two picnic areas. Also, visitors riding the free shuttle bus to the Mariposa Grove are encouraged to park in Wawona. Parking demand varies during the day, and from day to day, as the number of visitors and employees fluctuates.

The scenery of Yosemite National Park is one of its most significant resources and is largely responsible for the enormous popularity of the park. Since the first explorations and descriptions of Yosemite Valley by Euro-Americans in the mid-19th century, views of the pastoral Valley juxtaposed with towering geologic features and dramatic waterfalls have been recognized as outstanding resources of Yosemite Valley. Indeed, the beauty of the Yosemite landscape came to the attention of the nation largely through the early writings, paintings, and photographs produced by nationally recognized artists and visitors to the region, who in many ways influenced congressional legislation leading to the designation of Yosemite as a place worthy of preservation. The scenic resources of Yosemite have a high degree of cultural significance. Most of the quintessential views into and from the Valley are iconic, and are reflected in the works of artists including Albert Bierstadt, Ansel Adams, Thomas Moran, and Myron Hunt. The entire park, including the wilderness and other areas outside Yosemite Valley, remains a favorite subject for professional and amateur artists, photographers, and writers, whose work continues to communicate to visitors and nonvisitors alike the unique scenic resource values of the park.

Scenic views from nearly all lands within the Merced River corridor are distinctive. Steep valley and canyon walls, clear air, spectacular rock formations, and panoramic views combine to offer a wealth of visual resources nearly unsurpassed in the United States. As people move through the varied topography and vegetation along sections of the valleys and canyons that characterize the Merced River, whether on foot, horseback, bicycle, or non-motorized watercraft, they experience a sequence or pattern of visual resources that in effect give a cumulative visual experience. This in itself is a unique experience above and beyond that of enjoying any one single viewpoint. This cumulative experience involves the interaction of multiple elements in relation to each other: the juxtaposition of individual features with the foreground and background, the interface of different surfaces, and the interplay of light reflecting off the different colors and textures of the elements making up the visual landscape. Protecting this pattern of visual resources is as important as protecting any one visual resource.

The visual landscape is the main reason that Yosemite National Park was established and is the primary resource that the National Park Service is charged with protecting. As such, the National Park Service has taken the approach in analyzing potential impacts on visual resources that these inherent resources are self-evidently valuable, and the crux of any analysis is concentrated on how visitors to the park experience these resources. Following this principle, the National Park Service established policies and regulations to protect visual resources, including efforts to characterize and catalog important scenic landscapes. In the past 20 years, the National Park Service has further developed these policies by identifying important scenic resources and establishing a framework for protecting them, including restrictions on development of human-made structures within visually important areas. Today, though structures and infrastructure intrude into some scenic views from the main stem or South Fork of the Merced River, or views of the river (such as the roads near the river in Yosemite Valley), the area is largely pristine and human-made features do not dominate, even in the landscapes where they are visible.

Visual resources viewable from within the Merced River corridor in the wilderness are less studied than those in Yosemite Valley and other developed areas, but exhibit equivalent scenic resource value. Domes and other rock features dominate the scenery in Little Yosemite Valley, where the Merced River meanders through relatively flat land formed by ancient glaciers. Further upstream past Bunnell Cascade, which is itself an important visual resource, the canyon narrows into the Lost Valley, then Echo Valley, and then opens again to meadows and lakes in the area of Merced and Washburn Lakes. Above Washburn Lake, the river includes lakes surrounded by peaks of the Clark and Cathedral Ranges, which both are important scenic resources within the Yosemite Wilderness and the Ansel Adams Wilderness (Inyo and Sierra National Forests) and contribute to the scenic resources of the Merced River. Visual intrusions in this area include the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp and the composting toilet at Little Yosemite Valley Backpackers Campground.

Similarly, the wilderness areas in the upper reaches of the South Fork largely remain as pristine and undisturbed as they were hundreds of years ago. Visitors to the South Fork experience views of large pothole pools within slick rock cascades, old growth forest, and meadowlands. The South Fork travels through V-shaped canyons; prominent features of the wilderness along the South Fork include Moraine Meadows and soda springs above Gravelly Ford.

Further downstream, as the South Fork approaches Wawona, important visual resources include Wawona Dome. Scenic resources in the South Fork canyon below Wawona consist primarily of whitewater cascades tumbling down the deep and narrow, untrailed canyon.

With the exception of the few buildings around Merced Lake, virtually no human-made structures intrude into the views of the wilderness. Only a small fraction of the visitors to the park ever experience the scenic resources of the wilderness; the lack of people and modern cultural artifacts enhances the beauty of the area, as well as the opportunity to enjoy these landscapes.

Scenic resources have been studied and analyzed in Yosemite National Park since at least 1865, when a board of commissioners appointed by the governor of the State of California commissioned three artists to study and document the scenery of Yosemite. The Merced River is featured prominently in the work produced by that commission. Most recently, as part of the development of its General Management Plan, the National Park Service conducted a study in the late 1970s to determine existing viewing conditions within Yosemite Valley and to identify the landscape features most visitors look for and are able to distinguish. Based on this study, the 11 most important features within Yosemite Valley are Half Dome, Yosemite Falls, El Capitan, Bridalveil Fall, Three Brothers, Cathedral Rocks and Spires, Sentinel Rock, Glacier Point, North Dome, Washington Column, and Royal Arches. The study also evaluated all points from which these 11 features could be seen (assuming no vegetation or structures obstructed the view) to establish the scenic viewing potential of different locations on the Valley floor. Existing viewpoints were identified and rated for the quality of their views and their proximity to roads and trails. All 11 of these features can be seen from various sections of the Merced River through Yosemite Valley. Other important scenic resources viewable from within the Merced River corridor in Yosemite Valley include: Nevada, Illilouette, and Ribbon Falls; the cliffs at Yosemite Point/Lost ArrowSpine; and the scenic interface of river, rock, meadow, and forest throughout the Valley.

The historic viewpoint analysis identified areas within Yosemite Valley that were consistently selected by eminent historic photographers and painters as the best areas for photographing and painting scenic features. The Merced River is featured prominently in the foreground, intermediate ground, or background of many historical viewpoints of the Valley, both inside and outside the Merced River corridor. Once the existing and historic viewpoints were established, specific locations in the Valley were classified in the General Management Plan according to the following criteria:

The study conducted for the General Management Plan resulted in the development of a Yosemite Valley Scenic Analysis map (figure III-6). This map is a compilation of the Yosemite Valley historic and existing viewpoint analyses in the General Management Plan.

The Yosemite Valley Scenic Analysis map allows better understanding of existing conditions within each of the scenic categories established in the General Management Plan. Areas in the Valley with visual impacts include 155 acres of the 1,800 acres classified as A. Scenic, 222 acres of the 1,116 acres classified as B. Scenic, and 28 acres of the 73 acres classified as C. Scenic. These impacts are primarily intrusions by human-made features, though some historically important views have become blocked by non-native vegetation. Major existing visual intrusions are roads and traffic through Ahwahnee Meadow, Stoneman Meadow, and other meadows when viewing Half Dome (one of the 11 most important features) from the Valley floor, including from within the Merced River corridor. Other major intrusions into the scenic beauty of Yosemite Valley include: National Park Service and concessioner maintenance and warehouse facilities, Camp 6, and Curry Village. Of the 155 acres of affected A. Scenic resources, 5 acres are located within the Merced River corridor in the west Valley. These include the Bridalveil Fall parking lot and Cathedral Beach and El Capitan Picnic Areas. Table III-9 identifies the major visual intrusions within each scenic category.

Visual resources within the V-shaped Merced River gorge downstream from Yosemite Valley are somewhat limited because of the steep terrain and forest cover. Important views from the Merced River or its banks within the gorge include panoramic views of the steep walls and rock features that define the gorge, such as Pulpit Rock, the Rostrum, and Elephant Rock, as well as the Cascades and other spectacular rapids among giant boulders. Some human-made structures intrude into the views from within the Merced River corridor in the gorge, such as the Cascades Diversion Dam, but these structures do not dominate the natural landscape from any viewpoint.

Scenery directly viewed from within the Merced River corridor in the Wawona Area is primarily of the South Fork itself, with distant views of forests and granite features such as Wawona Dome. Near views include managed landscapes throughout the private development in Section 35 downriver to the Wawona Campground. These elements, due to scale, may not dominate the landscape, but are an element of the mix of landscapes themselves.

A condition that may substantially impair the enjoyment of visual resources at times in all areas of the park is the decreased visibility caused by photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is created through a series of chemical reactions that occur whenever sufficient concentrations of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are exposed to ultraviolet light. Exact information on the degree of decreased visibility caused by smog in Yosemite is not currently available. The degree of visibility loss generally is a function of the time of day, relative humidity, and meteorological conditions. However, because nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon concentrations in the park approach levels recorded in urban areas, it is assumed that some decrease in visibility in Yosemite is associated with vehicle exhaust emissions. Decreased visibility may also be experienced at times from smoke caused by natural and prescribed fires or campfires.

Another factor that may affect the experience of visual resources seen from the Merced River or its banks is the change in patterns of vegetation in the park caused by humans since early Euro-American settlers entered Yosemite Valley. Early historical photographs of the Valley depict the forested or riparian banks of the Merced River dominated by broad-leafed trees before Euro-American settlers began developing the Valley. Early photos of Yosemite Valley also show that the meadows were considerably larger due to the high water table and seasonal flooding prior to the blasting of a portion of the El Capitan moraine in 1879. Due in part to the lowering of the moraine and thus the lowering of water tables, the banks of the Merced River are now dominated by pine trees and other conifers, which grow taller and in denser stands than broad-leafed trees, thus significantly blocking views that were previously open. As well, because natural or cultural fire processes were discontinued during Euro-American settlement in the Valley, dense stands of conifers have cropped up in previously open meadows, blocking historically open scenic views. The National Park Service has considered restoring the vegetation along the Merced River and in the meadows to conditions similar to those of the mid-1800s, and may undertake such an effort in the future.

Approximately 4 million people visit Yosemite National Park annually. Yosemite visitors spend millions of dollars on lodging, meals, transportation, and other goods and services both inside the park and in gateway communities outside the park. As a result, Yosemite visitor spending is an important source of income and employment for the park, the primary park concessioner, and the gateway communities.

This Affected Environment section contains three subsections. The first section characterizes the regional economy, which includes Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Mono, and Tuolumne Counties. The affected region includes the four counties surrounding the park, plus Merced County. Economic and statistical profiles were developed for each county surrounding the park to assess the importance of tourism to the region. The profiles provide an economic baseline with detailed information on the size of each county's principal economic sectors in terms of output, income, employment, and other relevant economic indicators.

The economic effects of Yosemite visitor spending on the counties surrounding the park are related to the underlying structure of each county's economy. Counties with a large proportion of tourism-related businesses are more affected by changes in tourism spending than counties where tourism-dependent businesses constitute a small component of the economy.

The second section profiles socioeconomic conditions in the three primary developed areas along the main stem and South Fork of the Merced River: Yosemite Valley, Wawona, and the El Portal Administrative Site. The section provides information on housing, employment, primary concessioner and National Park Service facilities, and community amenities.

The third section characterizes the Yosemite National Park visitor population. The profile includes visitor trip characteristics, visitor population characteristics, park visitation trends, regional lodging characteristics, and visitor expenditures. This section also provides visitor demographics information on minority and low-income populations.

The information provided on the regional economy is largely drawn from a socioeconomic report prepared by Dornbusch & Company, Inc. (1999) for the National Park Service. IMPLAN, an economic model that estimates the effects on a specific economy from changes in spending, was the primary data source used to compile the economic baseline. Micro IMPLAN Group provided county-specific data on employment, income, output, and other economic variables as part of its input-output system. Micro IMPLAN Group developed the IMPLAN data in 1996. The IMPLAN data were indexed to 1998 dollars using the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U, 1982-84=100).

The affected environment includes the five primary gateway counties to Yosemite National Park: Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Mono, and Tuolumne Counties. The four main access roads to the park pass through the five gateway counties, including Highway 41 through Madera and Mariposa Counties, Highway 140 through Mariposa and Merced Counties, Highway 120 east through Mono County, and Highway 120 west through Tuolumne County (see figure III-1). The affected environment generally includes those cities within 100 miles, or 2.5 hours driving time, from Yosemite Valley, which is used as a central measuring point for the park. Travel and lodging expenditures within the 100-mile radius of Yosemite Valley are likely to be Yosemite-related, since the park is the dominant tourist destination in the region (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Yosemite National Park is partly located in Madera, Mariposa, and Tuolumne Counties. The developed areas along the main stem and South Fork of the Merced River are located within the jurisdiction of Mariposa County, including Yosemite Valley, Wawona, and the El Portal Administrative Site.

Stanislaus, San Joaquin, and Fresno Counties were excluded from the affected region because it is difficult to distinguish the portions of the tourist economies of these counties that are associated with Yosemite visitation versus other tourist destinations. Also, tourism is a relatively small component of these counties. overall economies.

Regional Comparison

Population. In 1998, the total population of the five-county affected region was approximately 391,891 (see table III-10). Merced County is the most populous county, with roughly 197,730 residents. Mono County is the least populous of the five counties, with about 10,288 residents, despite having the largest land area. Mariposa County has a total population of approximately 15,877 residents. Table III-10 provides population figures for the five counties in the affected region.

The populations of all five counties in the affected region are predicted to grow steadily through the year 2040 (see table III-11). Madera County is projected to experience the highest rate of population growth through 2040, with an average per-decade growth rate of 31%. Generally, the per-decade rate of population growth is expected to increase during the first decade of the 21st century before declining for all the affected counties except Madera, which is forecast to steadily decline.

Employment. The employment figures include all waged, salaried, and self-employed jobs in each county, and both full-time and part-time workers. In 1996, total employment was approximately 164,000 in the five-county area. Approximately 47.8% of the total employment in the affected region was in Merced County (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). Madera County had the second largest employment base in the region, accounting for approximately 29.3% of total employment. Mariposa County, which includes Yosemite Valley, El Portal, and Wawona, accounted for approximately 4.9% of total employment in the affected region. Table III-12 provides total employment estimates for the counties by industry sector. The figures are used as the baseline for employment conditions.

According to census estimates, the total civilian labor force in the five-county region in 1998 was 169,000, of which approximately 147,000 were employed. All five counties have unemployment rates above the national and state averages. The region's average rate of unemployment in 1998 was 13.1% (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Income. Total personal income includes employee compensation, proprietor income, other property income, and indirect business tax. In 1996, total personal income for the five-county area was approximately $6.9 billion (1998 dollars) (see table III-13) (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). Merced County accounted for approximately 48.1% of total personal income in the five-county affected environment, and Madera County, with the second largest economy, accounted for approximately 28.6%. Mariposa County accounted for approximately 4.7% of total personal income in the affected region.

Output. Economic output is a measure of productivity. Measures of economic output vary depending on the industry sector. For the agricultural, wholesale trade, and retail trade sectors, output is measured by the value of products sold. In the manufacturing sector, output is a measure of the value added by the manufacturer or the value of shipments. In the service sector, output is measured as receipts in dollars (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

The estimated total output of goods and services for the five-county affected region in 1996 was almost $13.1 billion (1998 dollars) (see table III-14). Merced County accounted for approximately 53.6% of total economic output in the affected region. Mariposa County, which had the smallest economy in the five-county affected region, accounted for approximately 4.0% of output. Based on output, manufacturing was the largest economic sector in the five counties.

Taxable Retail Sales. Taxable retail sales are good indicators of annual spending in the travel-service sectors, since they represent the taxes paid for transactions with consumers. The total taxable retail sales figures include the taxes paid by businesses on raw materials and services (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). In 1998, the total taxable retail sales for the five counties was nearly $3.0 billion (1998 dollars). Merced County accounted for approximately 49.9% of total taxable sales in the five-county affected region, followed by Madera County, which accounted for 26.5%.

Mariposa County, which includes Yosemite Valley, El Portal, and Wawona, accounted for about 4.2% of total taxable sales. Table III-15 shows total taxable retail sales by county.

County Profiles

Madera County. The central economic activity in Madera County is agriculture, which constitutes nearly one-third of the county's total employment and over 20% of the county's personal income and economic output (see tables III-12, III-13, and III-14). The agricultural sector stimulates production in related sectors of the economy, including jobs in food processing, transportation, and wholesale trade (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Total wage and salary employment in Madera County is expected to grow by approximately 22% from 1995 to 2002. Most of the new job growth is expected to be in services and manufacturing (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Mariposa County. Recreation and tourism are major industries in Mariposa County. The county's primary recreation area/tourist attraction is Yosemite National Park, much of which lies within the county, including the developed areas of Yosemite Valley, Wawona, and the El Portal Administrative Site. Major recreation areas in Mariposa County include Stanislaus National Forest and Sierra National Forest, including the U.S. Forest Service/Bureau of Land Management managed recreation areas along the Merced River. Other recreation resources in Mariposa County include Lake McSwain and Lake McClure, where camping is available (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Lodging, food and beverage, and other service industries are central to the county's economy and accounted for nearly 50% of employment and over one-third of personal income and economic output in 1996. Government is also a major economic sector in the county, accounting for 23.1% of employment, 21.7% of income, and 13.3% of total output. The finance, insurance, and real estate sector accounted for 17.9% of income and 15.3% of economic output, although only about 4% of total employment (see tables III-12, III-13 and III-14).

Merced County. Merced County, located west of Yosemite National Park, has the largest economy in the affected region. Agriculture is the largest economic sector in Merced County and accounted for over 20% of employment, 17.7% of personal income, and 19.7% of economic output in 1996. The primary commodities include milk products, chicken, and cattle. The economy has a light industry component, much of which is geared toward agricultural products (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

All industrial sectors are projected to experience growth from 1995 to 2002, with the greatest growth expected in the communications and public utilities sector as the facilities at a former U.S. Air Force base are privatized. The government sector is projected to grow by 21.5% from 1995 to 2002, driven by increasing demand for educators and related staff. Further education-related positions will be generated by the establishment of a University of California campus, which also may spur some development in other counties (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Merced County's primary tourist attraction, particularly for the city of Merced, is Yosemite National Park, which is located over 50 miles from the county's eastern boundary (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Mono County. Mono County is the primary gateway county for visitors entering through the eastern park entrance. Park access via this entrance is limited in the winter, since the entrance is typically closed from November to late May due to snowfall.

Lodging, food and beverage, and other services are central to Mono County's economy, which is also bolstered by extensive natural resources and recreational opportunities. In 1996, approximately 50% of employment and over one-third of personal income and economic output in Mono County were provided by hotels and lodging, food and beverage, and other service industries. Mammoth Lakes, which is located in southern Mono County, is the center of the county's winter tourism industry and is the fastest growing community in the county. Related employment is erratic since it depends heavily on snowfall at Mammoth Lakes Ski Resort (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Tuolumne County. Yosemite National Park is in the southeastern portion of Tuolumne County. The services sector was the largest employer in the county in 1996, accounting for 24.4% of employment and over 18% of personal income and economic output (see tables III-12, III-13, and III-14).

Nonfarm employment in Tuolumne County is projected to grow by 15% from 1995 to 2002 as the economy experiences continued population growth. Most of the job growth is expected in the services, retail trade, construction, and manufacturing sectors. The services sector is expected to create the greatest number of new jobs, reflecting an increased demand for business, health, personal, and hospitality services (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Other recreational attractions in Tuolumne County include Columbia State Park, Stanislaus National Forest, Dodge Ridge Ski Area, and Leland Meadows.

There are three developed areas along the main stem and South Fork of the Merced River: Yosemite Valley, El Portal, and Wawona. The following discussion profiles the socioeconomic environments of these communities.

Yosemite Valley is the economic center of Yosemite National Park. Yosemite Valley is the park's most popular visitor destination, with over 80% of tourists visiting the Valley (Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates 1998).

Facilities. Yosemite Valley hosts the most concentrated array of visitor services and facilities in the park. Yosemite Village is the core area for most of the development and day use in Yosemite Valley and includes a visitor center, museum, concessioner Village Store complex and food service, and National Park Service and primary park concessioner administration offices.

Camping in Yosemite Valley is provided at six campgrounds. The three drive-in campgrounds, Upper Pines Campground, Lower Pines Campground, and North Pines Campground, operate on a reservation system though the National Park Reservation Service. Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground) is a first-come, first-served walk-in campground. Backpackers Campground, another walk-in campground, is reserved for pre- and post-trip nights for wilderness permit holders. Yellow Pine is primarily a National Park Service volunteer walk-in campground. Although the campgrounds are not concession operated, campers use concession facilities located elsewhere, including showers, coin-operated laundries, stores, and restaurants.

The revenue-generating services in Yosemite Valley are predominantly operated by the primary park concessioner. Major concessioner facilities outside of Yosemite Village include the 245-room Yosemite Lodge, 123 rooms at The Ahwahnee, the 264-unit Housekeeping Camp, the 628-unit Curry Village, and the Valley stable. The lodging facilities are accompanied by concession-operated food service and stores. The concessioner operates several equipment-rental establishments that provide bicycles, rafts, and cross-country skis.

Employment. During the 1998 peak season, the National Park Service employed approximately 412 staff in the Valley. As shown in table III-16, approximately 12 National Park Service staff are assigned to the Upper Pines, Lower Pines, and North Pines Campgrounds, and Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground).

During the peak season, the primary park concessioner employs approximately 1,378 staff in Yosemite Valley. Approximately 250 staff are employed at Yosemite Lodge, 27 staff at Housekeeping Camp, and 31 staff at the Valley stable (see table III-16).

Housing. National Park Service employees are generally housed in single-family homes or apartments. The National Park Service provides approximately 73 housing beds in Yosemite Valley (see table III-17).

The primary park concessioner provides approximately 1,167 housing beds in Yosemite Valley during the peak season (see table III-17). There is high seasonal variation in the number of concession employees housed in the Valley, ranging from about 1,167 employees during the peak season to about 800 in the winter. Most of the primary park concessioner employees reside in dormitories or camps of tent cabins.

Commute. Generally, individuals who reside in Yosemite Valley also work there. Commute time into Yosemite Valley from El Portal is approximately 30 minutes, and from Mariposa is about 60 minutes. Commute time between Yosemite Valley and Wawona is approximately 50 minutes. The commute from Yosemite Valley to Fish Camp is approximately 70 minutes, to Sugar Pine is 75 minutes, and to Oakhurst is 80 minutes. Heavy visitor traffic during the summer and snow during the winter can increase commute times.

Two commuter bus services are available for park employees: Midpines Commuter Bus (operated by the primary park concessioner) and VIA Adventures bus service. The Midpines Commuter Bus makes one morning trip and one evening trip between Midpines and Yosemite Valley, with a stop in El Portal, on weekdays. VIA Adventures provides bus services for Yosemite visitors and employees. VIA Adventures makes several trips per day between Merced and Yosemite Valley, with stops in Mariposa, Midpines, and El Portal (NPS 1999e).

The National Park Service recently implemented a Transportation Fringe Benefit Program for government employees. The program allows government employees to set aside up to $65 per month in pre-tax income for public transportation-related expenses (NPS 1999j).

Community Amenities. Community amenities are facilities that support the basic functions of a human settlement, including schools, libraries, post offices, and stores. Yosemite Valley has the highest concentration of amenities in the park. Yosemite Valley has an elementary school that includes kindergarten through eighth grade. High school students attend school in Mariposa. Stores and restaurants are provided in Yosemite Lodge, Yosemite Village, The Ahwahnee, and Curry Village areas. These facilities are generally within walking distance of a major housing area and offer quick, relatively convenient services. Other Yosemite Valley amenities include a post office, a medical and dental clinic, laundry facilities, wellness center, hair care, uniform service, entertainment, and security personnel. The spectacular natural environment of Yosemite Valley provides outdoor recreational opportunities for Valley residents.

Yosemite Wilderness

Facilities. Few visitor-serving accommodations are located in wilderness areas along the Merced River. The only facilities within the wilderness reaches of the Merced River corridor include restrooms at the Backpackers Campgrounds (Little Yosemite Valley, and Merced Lake), a ranger station tent at Little Yosemite Valley, and the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp. The primary park concessioner operates Merced Lake High Sierra Camp, which is located in proximity to the Merced Lake Backpackers Campground. Merced Lake High Sierra Camp is one of five High Sierra Camps located in the Wilderness of Yosemite National Park. Guests are lodged in tent cabins, and meals are served. Merced Lake High Sierra Camp has a total of 22 tent cabins and a capacity of approximately 60 overnight visitors.

Employment. One law enforcement ranger and two interns are assigned to the Little Yosemite Valley Ranger Station. One law enforcement ranger is assigned to the Merced Lake Ranger Station. Management of the Little Yosemite Valley and Moraine Dome Backpackers Campgrounds and the Merced Lake Backpackers Campground is among the responsibilities of these National Park Service staff. One maintenance staff is assigned to the Little Yosemite Valley and Moraine Dome Backpackers Campgrounds (see table III-16).

As shown in table III-16, the primary park concessioner employs approximately seven staff to provide visitor services at the Merced Lake High Sierra Camp (Yosemite Concession Services 1999). One National Park Service staff provides maintenance services for the five High Sierra Camps in the park.

The El Portal Administrative Site is located on Highway 140, approximately 16 miles west of Yosemite Valley. El Portal is a 1,398-acre area that was designated as an administrative area in 1958.

Facilities. El Portal functions primarily as a National Park Service employee residential area and a maintenance and utilities site. The National Park Service also has administrative and research facilities in El Portal.

Concession facilities in El Portal include a small grocery store and a service station. These facilities are operated by two concessioners (not the primary park concessioner).

A 278-room hotel, with restaurant facilities and a grocery/gift store, is located on private land near the park boundary.

El Portal also is the headquarters for the Yosemite Association housed in the historic Bagby train station, and the Yosemite Institute housed in the El Portal Hotel.

Employment. The National Park Service employs approximately 263 staff in El Portal (see table III-16, above). Two concessioners operate the service station and grocery store in El Portal and employ approximately eight staff.

Housing. El Portal is a small community of approximately 700 residents. Individuals living in El Portal generally work for the National Park Service or the primary park concessioner. Compared to Yosemite Valley, greater proportions of El Portal residents are married and have children. Many employees who reside in El Portal do not live in government- or company-owned housing. Many homes in Old El Portal are privately owned and are administered through the park's special-use permit program. Presently, regulations are being developed to describe the administrative relationship between these private homeowners and the National Park Service.

As shown in table III-16, above, the National Park Service provides approximately 177 housing beds in El Portal, including Rancheria Flat and a few government-owned residences in El Portal Village Center. The primary park concessioner has approximately 65 housing beds in El Portal. The El Portal Trailer Village accounts for approximately 68 housing beds (NPS 1999p).

Commute. About 390 employees commute from El Portal to Yosemite Valley in summer, and about 280 employees commute in winter. Commuting time between El Portal and Yosemite Valley is approximately 30 minutes. Heavy visitor traffic on El Portal Road during the summer and snow during the winter can increase commute time. In addition, road reconstruction on El Portal Road due to 1997 flood damage limits commuting hours to 6:30 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. to 10:30 p.m. during the nonpeak season. This schedule and the road construction are expected to conclude by the end of 2000.

Community Amenities. El Portal features community amenities, including an elementary school with kindergarten through sixth grades, a small high school, a day care center, a library, a post office, a community center, a small grocery store, and a service station. Recreational amenities include a baseball field, a tennis court, a basketball court, a seasonal swimming pool, and a playground. The spectacular natural environment of El Portal provides outdoor recreational opportunities for local residents.

Wawona is located in the southwestern portion of Yosemite National Park.

Facilities. The National Park Service operates the 93-site Wawona Campground, the 2-campsite Wawona Horse Camp, and the Pioneer Yosemite History Center, which is a collection of historic buildings relocated to the Wawona area from various locations throughout the park. The National Park Service offers stagecoach rides across the Wawona Covered Bridge to the Pioneer Yosemite History Center.

The concession facilities in Wawona include the 104-room Wawona Hotel complex, which features a dining room, bar, golf course, pro shop, and snack bar. Other concession facilities include a grocery store, gift shop, service station, and stables (NPS 1992a).

Employment. The National Park Service employs approximately 60 staff in Wawona during the peak season (see table III-16, above). Approximately six staff are assigned to the Wawona Campground, and approximately one full-time staff and five interns work at the Pioneer Yosemite History Center.

During the peak season, the primary park concessioner employs approximately 130 staff in Wawona, the majority of whom are employed at the Wawona Hotel complex. As shown in table III-16, approximately four concessioner staff work at the Wawona stable.

Housing. Individuals residing in Wawona generally do not work for the National Park Service or the primary park concessioner. Most individuals are retired, have external incomes, and are seasonal residents.

Most of the residences in Wawona are located in Section 35, which includes about 350 homes. Approximately 300 residences are privately owned (some of these residences are included in the National Park Service land acquisition program), 50 residences are managed and used by the National Park Service, and 5 residences are managed by the National Park Service and leased to individuals (including 3 to the primary park concessioner) under fixed-term or lifetime leases (see table III-17, above).

The primary park concessioner provides approximately 62 housing beds in Wawona (see table III-17, above). Concession housing includes individual residences, group houses with dormitory-style beds, and tents.

Commute. Commuting time between Wawona and Yosemite Valley is approximately 50 minutes. Heavy visitor traffic on the south entrance road during the summer and snow during the winter can increase commute time. The commute from Wawona to Fish Camp is about 15 minutes, to Sugar Pine is 20 minutes, and to Oakhurst is 30 minutes under good conditions.

Community Amenities. Wawona is a small community with few amenities. These include an elementary school with kindergarten through sixth grades, a library, a post office, two small grocery stores, and a concession-run restaurant and service station. Recreational amenities include a baseball field, a basketball court, and a playground. Residents may also make use of the pool and tennis court at the Wawona Hotel. The spectacular natural environment of Wawona provides outdoor recreational opportunities for local residents.

The visitor population information is based on Draft Working Paper #3-3: Year Round Data Collection Summary Report, prepared as a concept document for the Yosemite Area Regional Transportation System (YARTS) Board by Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates (1998). The year-round data collection effort, which gathered demographics, travel patterns, and preferences of the Yosemite visitor, concluded in September 1998. The information presented below was compiled by Dornbusch & Company, Inc. (1999) from the Year Round Data Collection Summary Report and National Park Service monthly public use reports.

The trip characteristics of Yosemite National Park visitors were used to determine the socioeconomic impacts on the affected region which may result from changes in park visitation and/or visitor spending. The nature and extent of socioeconomic impacts are affected by the trip characteristics of Yosemite visitors. The following analysis discusses the principal aspects of visitor trip characteristics that influence the socioeconomic impacts of annual visitation to Yosemite (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Approximately 80% of park visitors go to Yosemite Valley, which is the most popular destination in the park. Wawona is also a popular park destination; approximately 20% of visitors go to Wawona (Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates 1998).

Three categories of visitors can be identified among park visitors: park overnighters, local overnighters, and day visitors. Park overnighters are park visitors who lodge or camp overnight within the park. Overnight visitation in the park is controlled by the National Park Service and limited by the availability of lodging and camping facilities. Local overnighters are park visitors who lodge or camp within the Yosemite region during their trip. These visitors typically spend several days visiting the park. Day visitors are park visitors who either do not lodge or camp overnight in the region, or who are local residents.

In the National Park Service's visitation counts and statistics, local overnighters and day visitors are recognized as day users, since both travel daily in and out of the park during their Yosemite trip. Some visitors fall into two categories. For example, park visitors may stay overnight both inside and outside the park during their visit. For the purposes of the impact analysis, distinct visitor population estimates were developed to account for these overlaps.

According to YARTS's survey results and the population definitions described above, park overnighters constitute about 20%, local overnighters about 40%, and day visitors about 40% of the park visitor population (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Estimates of total annual visitation to Yosemite in each visitor population category were developed from National Park Service monthly public use reports. The analysis indicates that annual recreational visitation increased from 2.55 million in 1981 to 4.05 million in 1996, an average annual increase of 3.3%. During this period, overnight visitation within the park was relatively unchanged, at 2.1 million overnight stays per year; day-use growth was responsible for the entire increase in park visitation. This growth rate is equivalent to an average annual increase of 4.4%. Between 1990 and 1996, day use grew at an even higher rate, averaging more than 6% per year.

After the January 1997 flood, total recreational visitation to Yosemite dropped from 4.05 million in 1996 to 3.67 million in 1997 (a 9.3% decrease). In 1998, annual park visitation was relatively unchanged from the 1997 levels. Of the 0.38 million displaced visitors, 0.17 million were park overnighters. While day visitation decreased by 6.3% in 1997, overnight visitation decreased by 22% (primarily due to the loss of Yosemite Valley campsites and motel rooms after the 1997 flood).

Past visitation trends suggest that demand for Yosemite visitation was strong and growing before the flood. Furthermore, limits to the park's lodging capacity increasingly required individuals to visit Yosemite as day users (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Length of stay is an important factor in determining the magnitude of visitor impacts on the park, the concessioner, and the surrounding counties. The average length of stay for park visitors is based on a 1990-1991 Yosemite visitor survey (Gramann 1992). For the purposes of this analysis, it is assumed that the average length of stay for both local and park overnighters was 2.7 days. An average length of stay of 4.2 hours was used for day visitors (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Approximately half of Yosemite day visitors lodge or camp overnight in the five-county affected region. These visitors are categorized as "local overnighters" in the impact analysis. Other visitors lodge overnight outside the affected regions (either at their homes or other accommodations) and are identified as "day visitors."

Table III-18 shows the locations where local overnighters visiting Yosemite during the summer reported staying overnight in the region. According to the survey results, the greatest percentage of local overnight visitors stay in Madera County, followed by Mono County and Mariposa County (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

The most recent information on the overnight accommodation capacities of the surrounding counties is provided by YARTS. As part of YARTS's recent planning efforts, Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates identified and inventoried the lodging and campground facilities in the region along main highways and/or in proximity to the park. Although the inventory was performed during the winter and closed facilities were not surveyed, Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates concluded that the inventory represents a reasonable estimate of the region's lodging and camping capacity. Table III-19 presents the results of the analysis, adjusted to show overnight accommodation capacities by county (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Visitor Expenditures

Average Visitor Expenditures. Visitor spending information was developed from the 1998 YARTS Draft Working Paper #3-3 (Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates 1998). The spending estimates presented in table III-20 were determined by taking weighted averages of the spending ranges reported by respondents to the YARTS visitor survey (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Total Visitor Expenditures. Total Yosemite visitor spending was calculated to estimate the magnitude of the economic impact that Yosemite visitation has on the surrounding counties and the primary park concessioner. The daily visitor spending estimates are the primary source for determining the annual total Yosemite visitor expenditures. Lower average daily spending figures would result in smaller aggregate economic impacts from visitor spending. Total visitor spending in each visitor category has been estimated by multiplying the average daily visitor spending figures and the corresponding annual visitation (in visitor days).

Table III-21 provides estimates of total Yosemite visitor spending within the Yosemite region. Using estimated daily per capita spending figures for each visitor category (see table III-20) and 1998 visitation figures obtained from National Park Service monthly public use reports, the total Yosemite visitor spending in 1998 is estimated to be approximately $240 million (1998 dollars). This figure represents only Yosemite visitor spending in the park and the surrounding region. Yosemite visitors staying overnight outside the affected region are recognized as day visitors. As a result, their spending on lodging and other services outside the affected region is not included (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Demographic information on the Yosemite visitor population from past Yosemite visitor surveys is limited. The 1990-1991 Gramann (1992) survey of Yosemite visitors provides the most recent and complete information on the ethnic background of Yosemite visitors; its findings are presented in table III-22. As the table shows, non-Anglo visitors to the park are underrepresented compared to the California population or that of the nation. Gramann suggested that the lack of ethnic diversity in Yosemite visitation is common to most rural national parks and was probably the result of a "combination of economic constraints among ethnic minorities, differences in cultural preferences, and fears of discrimination among some ethnic groups."

The Gramman survey also reveals that the demographic mix of people living in the five counties surrounding Yosemite National Park is similar to that of the state as a whole, though African-American and Asian-American populations are somewhat lower in the five counties than the state as a whole, and American Indian populations in the five counties are significantly higher than in the state as a whole. These figures suggest that visitors to the park from the five local counties do not reflect the ethnic diversity of the local population, probably for the same reasons as mentioned above (Gramann 1992).

As shown in table III-23, households with an annual income greater than $100,000 constitute the highest percentage of visitors to Yosemite National Park (26%, using the income categories in the table). Households with an annual income of less than $20,000 constitute the smallest percentage of visitors (5%). By contrast, households with an annual income below $20,000 constitute the highest percentage of the population in the state as a whole (37%, using the income categories in the table). These figures suggest that people from low-income households are largely underrepresented in the population of visitors to Yosemite National Park. This is true on both a statewide and regional basis. Factors that may account for this underrepresentation include the cost of travel to the park, the cost of entering the park, and the cost of staying at the park, as well as the possible cultural reasons mentioned above.

Many programs and facilities administered by Yosemite National Park operations staff are located within the Merced River corridor, both along the main stem in wilderness, Yosemite Valley and in the El Portal Administrative Site, and along the South Fork in the Wawona area. Park operations fall into four basic categories: resources management, facility management, visitor protection, and interpretive services.

Resources management staff protect the natural, historic, and cultural resources of the park. They are responsible for resource monitoring and evaluation, impacts mitigation, restoration, and wildlife management. Facilities necessary to support resources management activities and programs include office and storage space, vehicle parking, and employee housing. Approximately 34 Yosemite employees are currently assigned to the Resources Management Division.

Facilities Management staff conduct preventive and corrective maintenance on park infrastructure, including water, wastewater, and electric utility systems, park roads, trails, and structures within the park. The Facilities Management Division includes:

• The Buildings and Grounds Branch maintains structures, housing, and campgrounds, with operations based in El Portal, Mather, Yosemite Valley, and Wawona.

• The Roads and Trails Branch operates the National Park Service stable, maintain trails and vehicles, services various sanitary facilities, removes hazardous trees near buildings and along roads and trails, and conducts preventive and corrective maintenance on National Park Service administered roads within the park, with operations based in El Portal, Mather, Yosemite Valley, and Wawona.

• The Utilities Branch operates and maintains all utility systems, energy audit, and monitoring within the park, with operations based in Tuolumne Meadows, El Portal, Yosemite Valley, and Wawona.

• The Design and Engineering Branch provides engineers, survey, and Historic Preservation.

Facilities that support the needs of the facilities management staff include equipment and replacement parts storage, office space, vehicle parking, water and wastewater treatment facilities, substations, and employee housing. Approximately 208 Yosemite employees are currently assigned to the Facilities Management Division.

Visitor protection staff perform various visitor management and resource protection duties, including enforcing laws, resolving disputes, providing emergency medical treatment, fighting fires, staffing wilderness ranger stations, and conducting search and rescue operations. Protection rangers also monitor natural and cultural resources, perform restoration activities, and provide information and interpretation to park visitors. Facilities that support visitor protection activities include wilderness centers and permit kiosks, ranger stations, parking for emergency vehicles and other vehicles, office and storage space, a helipad, and employee housing. The National Park Service stable, located at the far west end of Yosemite Village and maintained by the Facilities Management Division, is not within the Merced River corridor. The Little Yosemite Valley Ranger Station is within the Merced River corridor, and protection rangers regularly travel through this area to carry out their responsibilities. A total of approximately 193 National Park Service employees are currently assigned to the Visitor Protection Division.

National Park Service interpretive programs occur on a regular schedule throughout the year and consist primarily of ranger-led talks, tours, and walks. Facilities associated with these interpretive programs include visitor centers, a museum, amphitheaters, Indian Village of Ahwahnee, Pioneer Yosemite History Center, office and storage space, vehicle parking, and employee housing. Some of these facilities are located within the Merced River corridor. Interpretive staff operate the Valley Visitor Center, the Wawona Information Station, and the Nature Center at Happy Isles, and regularly conduct talks and presentations at amphitheaters within the corridor in Yosemite Valley (e.g., Lower Pines Campground) and at Wawona Campground. The primary concessioner and park partners also conduct interpretive programs within the Merced River corridor, such as guided photography tours and field seminars. Approximately 63 Yosemite employees are currently assigned to the Interpretive Division, including museum staff, public involvement staff, supervisors, planners, and field interpreters.

There are almost 800 miles of marked and maintained trails throughout the Wilderness, with 24 bridges crossing the Merced River and its tributaries. Ten of these bridges are on the main stem or within a one-quarter mile of the main stem in the Wilderness. Also on the main stem is a designated backpacker campground and ranger camp at Little Yosemite, a designated campground with food storage devices at Moraine Dome, and a designated backpacker campground and High Sierra Camp at Merced Lake. Administrative facilities at Little Yosemite include a composting toilet, campsites with food storage boxes, and a ranger camp. Administrative structures associated with the Merced Lake Backpackers Campground and High Sierra Camp include solar-powered water and sewer utilities, food storage boxes associated with campsites, and the buildings of the High Sierra Camp (as described in the Visitor Experience section under "Visitor Services"). There are directional signs at all trail junctions. There are directional, informational, and regulatory signs in the designated campsites and Merced Lake High Sierra Camp. There are no administrative facilities beyond marked and maintained trails within one-quarter mile of the South Fork.

The National Park Service maintains approximately 200 miles of roads within the park, divided among the following Federal Highway Administration categories: 127 miles are major park routes, 10 miles are minor park routes, 34 miles are special-purpose routes, 9 miles are administrative routes, and 19 miles are one-way routes. Major park routes include: the El Portal Road, Tioga Road, Big Oak Flat Road, Glacier Point Road, and Wawona Road. Minor routes within the park are primarily those designated for administrative use or those open only to bicycles, shuttle buses, and designated vehicles used by disabled visitors.

The road system within the park is generally in fair physical condition but is below National Park Service standards for current and projected future use. The system has some safety and operational issues, including 34 miles of roads that have deteriorated beyond the point where cyclical maintenance is practical. The majority of these are minor roads, except for 5 miles of the Glacier Point Road. However, more than 80% of road pavements within the park are more than 17 years old, and the normal life of these surfaces is 16 to 20 years. Therefore, deterioration is anticipated to accelerate for older surfaces, leading to further safety and operational issues. Previous research of road development in the park revealed that specific records on the dates and details of construction, maintenance, and repairs are largely nonexistent. Exact construction dates of individual features, such as guardrail segments and turnouts, in many cases cannot be determined more accurately than within a range of 10 to 20 years (NPS 1989c).

The Yosemite road system contains 4 tunnels and 30 bridges, each of which has unique maintenance issues and requirements. In addition to the road bridges, numerous footbridges exist within the Merced River corridor. Bridges within the park are generally in good condition, with a few exceptions. The Happy Isles Bridge in Yosemite Valley and the South Fork Bridge in Wawona have structural problems that are in the planning and design stages to remedy. The Happy Isles Bridge in Yosemite Valley is condemned and closed. Traffic on the bridge (primarily foot traffic) has been rerouted until additional planning, design, and construction are completed. Because the South Fork Bridge is closed, vehicle traffic is currently routed over a temporary bridge.

Bridges in Yosemite Valley include: Happy Isles, Clark's, Sugar Pine, Ahwahnee, Stoneman, Sentinel, El Capitan, Pohono, and several unnamed bridges over tributaries that feed into the Merced River. There are footbridges at Housekeeping Camp, as well as Superintendent's Bridge, Swinging Bridge, and several unnamed bridges over Merced River tributaries. Eight bridges in Yosemite Valley and the historic Covered Bridge in Wawona are all listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Several campgrounds and lodging units are located within the Merced River corridor, some of which were damaged in the flood of 1997 and are now closed, including Upper River and Lower River Campgrounds. The 264 lodging units at Housekeeping Camp in Yosemite Valley are located along the Merced River. The Ahwahnee, a portion of Curry Village, and sections of Yosemite Lodge are located within a quarter-mile of the Merced River. In Yosemite Valley, the North Pines (86 sites), Upper Pines (240 sites), and Lower Pines (78 sites) Campgrounds, Backpackers Campground (30 sites), and Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground) (38 units) remain open, for a total of 472 camping sites. All of these sites are within a quarter-mile of the Merced River corridor in Yosemite Valley. In Wawona, the Wawona Campground (93 sites) and the Wawona Hotel are within a quarter-mile of the Merced River. No lodging or campground facilities are within the Merced River corridor on lands managed by the National Park Service in the El Portal Administrative Site.

Water, wastewater, electric, and telephone utility systems within the park are generally in fair to good condition. Most utility systems in the park are operating within design capacity, with a few exceptions. The water supply systems in El Portal and Wawona are marginal, as is the capacity of the Wawona Wastewater Treatment Plant. Any excess utility system capacity is due primarily to the closure of some lodging units and campgrounds following the flood of 1997. For instance, the water system within Yosemite Valley is designed to deliver up to 3.8 million gallons per day (gpd), but currently delivers only about 500,000 gpd in the winter and 1 million gpd in the summer to users within Yosemite Valley, down from a peak of nearly 1.5 million gpd before the flood. Wastewater flows in Yosemite Valley decreased considerably after the flood of 1997, because several campgrounds and lodging units were damaged or destroyed and were subsequently closed. Leakage and resulting infiltration have been major problems in the past, the Facilities Management Division is making substantial improvements to the collection system in Yosemite Valley, but leakage and infiltration still occur on occasion.

A wastewater line runs between El Portal and Yosemite Valley beneath the El Portal Road on the north side of the Merced River. Wastewater in Yosemite Valley is pumped to the west end of Yosemite Valley, where it flows down to the El Portal Wastewater Treatment Plant at Railroad Flat, which has a 1 million gpd capacity. There are five wastewater treatment facilities within the park: El Portal, Hodgdon Meadow, Tuolumne Meadows, Wawona, and White Wolf. Of these, only the El Portal and Wawona facilities are located within a quarter-mile of the Merced River.

The National Park Service purchases power from Pacific Gas & Electric Company. Electricity is carried into Yosemite Valley via a 70,000-volt transmission line that runs overhead through El Portal and the Merced River gorge to the substation at the old Cascades Powerhouse. The powerhouse is no longer active as a hydroelectric generator but is still used as a substation. From the powerhouse, power is stepped down to 12,000 volts. Conductors extend beneath the El Portal Road to a substation in Yosemite Village. The Wawona Tunnel and Big Oak Flat Tunnel are served by overhead lines from the powerhouse. The primary electric distribution system is in generally good condition after upgrades over the last 12 years, although there are still areas in Yosemite Valley that require rehabilitation. End users in Wawona, El Portal, Foresta, and Hodgdon Meadow are served directly by PG&E, whose facilities are within the park in several places.

Pacific Bell supplies telephone service into Yosemite and El Portal primarily through microwave transmission. However, overhead phonelines are strung along the north side of the El Portal Road from the microwave transceiver at Turtleback Dome to serve Arch Rock. Overhead and underground lines serve various other locations throughout the park and El Portal.

There are 20 public water systems in the park; the Tuolumne Meadows and Wawona areas are the only large surface water systems in the park. The Wawona water system takes untreated water directly out of the South Fork of the Merced. This system is currently constrained in most years through much of the late summer and early fall because of low flows in the river. The National Park Service mandates stepped water-conservation measures whenever flows reach critical levels. Conservation measures start with banning irrigation use for the golf course and the lawns of homes and other buildings. The National Park Service is considering other options to increase the reliability of the water system at Wawona, including bringing water into Wawona via a seven-mile pipeline from the Mariposa Grove area and/or deep wells. Water is also taken out of the Merced River at Vernal Fall and Merced Lake for visitor use, though at much smaller quantities than at Wawona.

Three wells, a 2.5-million-gallon water storage tank, and several distribution lines supply Yosemite Valley. s users with water. The system has the capacity to produce about 2,700 gallons per minute (gpm) or 3.8 million gallons per day (gpd). Components of the water system are being replaced and upgraded due to damage sustained in the flood of 1997. These improvements will restore reliability to the system, provide monitoring of system conditions, and allow for remote control of pumping.

El Portal's water supply system consists of six wells adjacent to the Merced River and three tanks with a total storage capacity of 900,000 gallons, for a total production capacity of approximately 240 gpm or 350,000 gpd. The water system in El Portal is marginally sufficient for the current levels of use, but does not have adequate capacity to compensate for any component failure or any increased development.

National Park Service management policies require that all facilities be managed, operated, and maintained to minimize energy consumption and development of nonrenewable fuels. The policies also require that new energy-efficient technologies be used where appropriate and cost-effective. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 directs the use of energy-efficient building designs and equipment and the utilization of alternative motor fuels where practicable.

One of the management objectives for park operations, as outlined in previous planning efforts and Executive Order 13123, is to install facilities and utility systems that conserve energy. Design techniques and application of new technology to reduce energy and water consumption should be incorporated in the design of new facilities. Recent energy conservation and fuel substitution projects that are directed at facilities and vehicles in the park include: development of a training program in conjunction with Southern California Edison for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) technicians to increase the energy efficiency of HVAC systems; fluorescent lighting retrofits from T-12 lamps to more energy-efficient T-8 lamps; installation of energy-efficient motors and air handling systems at the El Portal Wastewater Treatment Plant; and the replacement of the No. 2 fuel oil boiler at the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center with a more efficient and cleaner propane boiler. The park currently operates four electric shuttle buses and an electric van in Yosemite Valley and plans to procure two electric pickup trucks for custodial duties in the Valley. There are 13 photovoltaic systems at wilderness locations, seven of which are within the river corridor and provide power for lighting, ventilation pumping, evaporation, and battery chargers. The National Park Service is conducting ongoing alternative fuels and technology analysis.

Energy sources consumed by stationary sources within Yosemite Valley include electricity, fuel oil, propane, and wood. National Park Service and Yosemite Concession Services mobile sources (e.g., motor vehicles) consume gasoline and diesel fuel, while the majority of visitor vehicles operate on gasoline. Table III-24 summarizes the estimated energy consumed in Yosemite Valley in 1998.