UNIT 2...SUBSISTENCE

SUBSISTENCE - existing; the means of supporting life; the source from which food and other items necessary to exist are obtained.

Different groups of people have developed different strategies to accomplish the task of supporting life. For example, some cultural groups developed a system of agriculture while other groups followed the migrations of large game animals. Hunting animals and gathering wild plants and fruits occupied little time over the course of a year as opposed to agriculture. Agricultural subsistence occupied much time and used a different set of skills than those of the Hunter/Gatherer groups.

Agriculture is one form of adaptation people have made to gain large supplies of food. The Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara of the Missouri River valley in what is now North Dakota developed a way of life which heavily relied on agriculture. Corn, beans, squash and sunflowers were the main crops. Some crops like melons, gourds and tobacco where also grown, but these were not as important to the subsistence pattern as "the big four".

PREPARING THE GARDEN

Fields or gardens of the Hidasta, Mandan, and Arikara were in the bottom land along the Missouri River. Untimbered prairie was never used because the soil is too hard and dry. Each family had its own garden. Gardening was done by the women of the villages. When a location of the plot was decided, boundary markers of stones, stakes, etc. were placed at the corners of the area to be prepared. Buffalo Bird Woman, a Hidatsa born in 1839 at the Knife River village known as Awatixa, said that the fields were kept sacred and people did not wish to quarrel over ownership. Once a field was established, a person causing a land dispute would be seen to be quarrelsome and selfish, and would bring some evil to their family. So disputes were settled quickly, by making a payment to the person whose land was being disputed.

Grass, brush and most of the trees in the area being prepared were clear cut in the fall of the year. The trees were cut so they would fall all in one direction, where they were left to dry. The object of felling trees in one direction was to make them cover as much ground as possible. Early in the spring, this dry material was burned off. This burning eliminated the trash and returned some nutrients to the soil. Also, burning the roots of the brush loosened the soil aiding in the cultivation process. Before this firing, all the dry grass, leaves and brush were raked away from the edges of the garden so the fire would not spread to the surrounding timber and prairie (Figure 2).

Following the burning, the ground was worked using a digging stick. Digging sticks about three and a half feet long were often made of ash wood, sharpened on one end to a three-sided point. This sharpened end was then rubbed with buffalo fat, wrapped with dry grass and charred in a fire to harden it. The point of the digging stick was forced into the ground about one hand length and then pushed back on to pry up the soil.

PLANTING THE CROPS

The first crop to be planted in the spring was the sunflowers. These were planted about the middle of April, as soon as the ground could be worked following the spring thaw. The women would scoop the soil into a hill by hand or hoe. The hill was patted firm, using the palm of the hand. Three seeds were planted in each hill. They were planted all together to the depth of the second joint of the woman's first two fingers. The hills were placed eight or nine paces apart around the edges of the fields, giving a pleasant appearance to the gardens.

American Indians used wild plant development to tell them when it was time to plant. Corn was planted when the gooseberry came into full leaf. The corn planting was a major undertaking as corn was the primary crop. It has been estimated that for the Big Hidatsa village there were 1,000 acres of crop land.

The Rev. Gilbert L. Wilson gives the following account of planting among the Hidatsa: "Corn planting began in the first half of May, after sunflower seed had been planted. The field was raked free of debris and the stalks of last year's crop, and the dried piles of debris were burned. The corn was planted in hills, three or four feet apart, seven or eight kernels in a hill. The earth was loosened with a wooden digging stick, or with a hoe. Each corn hill stood exactly where a hill had stood the year before. A second planting of corn was made when the juneberries were ripe to ensure a quantity of late roasting ears. "Beans were commonly planted between the corn hills. As soon as weeds appeared after planting, the field was hoed. A second hoeing, and hilling up of the plants followed soon after."

"Rotation of crops and fertilization were not practiced, but when a field began to fail, it was let lie fallow for a couple of years. The value of the ashes left from burning over a newly made field was understood."

"Indians insist that corn culture by hoe is much harder now, owing to the abundance of weeds that have been brought in by white men."

After the corn had been planted, bean and squash planting started. Squash was planted in late May through early June. The squash seed was sprouted before planting. A piece of tanned buffalo robe about 2 and one half feet long and eighteen inches wide was placed on the floor of the earthlodge, fur side up. Red grass leaves were dampened with water, spread out and matted together in a thin layer
on the fur. Two double handfuls of seeds were wetted but not soaked, and mixed with sage and buckbrush leaves. This mixture was then placed on the grass mat, which was folded over and around it. The buffalo robe was then rolled into a bundle and bound. This kaku'i kida'kci or "squash-thing-bound" was hung from a post of the earthlodge where it would stay warm. After two days the bundle was opened, some tepid water was sprayed on the seeds, they were re-bound and hung for one more day, at which time the seeds were sprouted nearly one inch long and ready to plant. When the seeds were sprouted, they were removed to a bowl of damp earth in which they were taken to the garden to plant.

The ground about fifteen inches in diameter was loosened for each hill. Care was taken so that each hill was in the place where there had been a hill the year before. Four seeds were planted in each hill in two pairs. The pairs were about twelve inches apart and the two seeds in each pair, a half inch apart. The seeds were planted in the sides of the hills as the sprouts were tender and could not break through the hard soil of the top of the hill if it had been rained upon.

Bean planting followed immediately after squash planting. Bean hills were interspersed among the corn hills or planted in open ground. The beans grown were pole type so they used the corn stalks for them to vine. Poles were placed over the hills if grown in open ground. Three beans in each hand, held between the thumb and first two fingers, were buried in the side of the hill about two inches deep. The two groups were about six inches apart.

TENDING THE GARDENS

Hoeing started immediately after the planting was finished in June and was kept up continuously until late in the summer. This usually gave time to hoe the whole garden twice. The hoeing was often mixed with other labors of the day. The women usually got up with the sun, around 4am, and went immediately to the gardens; they worked until the sun was well up, when its heat began to be felt. Later after regular household duties were completed, the women would return to the hoeing. This work would not be considered mere drudgery as garden plots were close enough together to permit friendly visiting. The women usually sang as they worked. Some young men were sure to be attracted by the presence of the young women.

Toward the end of summer, when the corn was beginning to form ears, a garden was seldom left unattended in the daytime as the blackbirds and crows were constantly a threat to the maturing corn. Birds were not the only threat to the garden produce. Boys nine to eleven years old were "expected" to steal some green corn ears to roast by fires in the woods. When caught, they were scolded but the parents were not asked to pay damage for the theft.

Watcher's stages or brush shelters were constructed for the convenience of those attending the gardens (Figure 3). Here some young girls were stationed, singing, gossiping, and working at some sort of sewing; or perhaps a mother and her daughters brought out their lunch and spent the day there. If a woman was childless, she might be accompanied by her nieces to the garden where they could have their lunch and spend the day.

The size of the gardens varied among families. Usually each healthy, mature female of a family had her own garden plot and was helped by her daughters. These plots were expanded annually until they reached the maximum workable size. The smallest gardens were about one and one half to two acres, and the largest perhaps as big as ten acres. Fences made of willows or brush often surrounded the garden plots to keep foraging animals from the tender green shoots.

HARVESTING THE CROPS

The people were rewarded for their labors late in July or early in August with the first bounty from the garden: squash. The squash harvest began when the squashes were about three and one quarter inches in diameter. Squash was picked every four days. The first picking was naturally small and was consumed by the harvesting family. The second picking was larger, being enough for the family and a small surplus. Each picking increased until the fifth or sixth, at which time the quantity began to decrease. Pickings were made before sunrise. Squash which were not cooked and eaten fresh were sliced and dried for later use. The forth picking of squash (twelve days after the first picking) signaled the beginning of green corn harvest. This was early in the harvest moon, when the blossoms of the prairie goldenrod were full, bright yellow: about the end of the first week in August (Figure 4).

Green corn was like the corn we eat today. Most of the corn was allowed to dry on the stalk to be stored for use later in the year. Green corn was boiled on the cob; shelled from the cob and boiled; or shelled from the cob, pounded in a corn mortar and boiled to make a mush or gruel (Figure 5).

By far the largest amount of corn was harvested after it had dried on the stalk. All the dried ears were gathered into piles. The day following the picking of the corn, a feast was given for those who came to help with the job of husking. The husking season was looked upon as a time of joviality, and youths dressed themselves for the occasion. The husking season lasted about ten days. As a husker came upon a ear of corn which was still green, he would place it in a separate pile. These would spoil if stored, so these ears belonged to the husker. As especially well formed or large ears were found, they were set aside for braiding. For this purpose the husk was cut off, leaving the three thin leaves. About 50 ears were braided to form a string and hung on the drying stage near the earthlodge of the family. The smaller less favorable ears were carried home in baskets (Figure 6). Here they were placed on the platform of the drying stage and allowed to dry for eleven days. When the corn was dry the ears were struck with flails or sticks to remove the grain from the cobs.
Beans were threshed in the fall after the pods had dried. Vines were pulled up and gathered in a cleared area where they were laid on the ground, roots up, spreading them out a little. After about three days, half an old tipi cover was spread out near the dry vines. The cover was used as a threshing floor. A heap of dry vines about three feet high was placed on the cover, then the heap was trampled with moccasined feet to shake the beans loose from their pods. Beans were threshed on windy days so winnowing could follow immediately. The beans were dried one more day following the winnowing. After this final drying, the beans were stored in sacks.

Although sunflowers were the first crop to be planted in the spring, they were the last to be harvested in the fall. The sunflowers were ready for harvest when the little petals that covered the seeds fell off, exposing the ripe seeds. To harvest, each head was cut from the stem and tossed into a basket worn on the harvester's back. The heads were hauled to the earthlodge where they were spread, face down, on the flat part of the roof around the smoke hole to dry. After four days of drying, the heads were placed on a skin and flailed. When this was finished, another supply of heads was brought in to dry and thresh. This was usually accomplished by the end of October.

STORING FOOD

Dry beans, corn, squash and sunflower were stored in cache (pronounced Cash) pits following their harvest (Figure 7). Bell or jar shaped in profile, cache pits could be dug in about two and one half days and were often five feet or more deep. Usually two women worked together making a pit or storing produce in one. Using a short-handled hoe, earth was raked into a wooden bowl. When the bowl was full it was borne away to be emptied. Below the neck, the pit would expand in diameter to perhaps six feet across. The bottom of the pit was covered with dry willow sticks fitted evenly and snugly together. Over the willow floor, thoroughly dried grass was spread to a depth of about four inches. The walls of the pit were then lined three to four inches thick with dry grass. This grass was held in place with about eight willow sticks placed vertically against the walls and fastened in place using dead willow pins.

A bullboat cover was then fitted into the bottom of the pit. Now the pit is ready to be used for storage. Strings of braided corn were laid around the outside of the pit. Shelled corn was poured in the middle. Dried squash might be placed in the center of the loose corn, thus protecting it from any chance of dampness. When the pit was filled to the neck, a circular cover, cut from the flank skin of a buffalo bull was snugly installed. Grass was placed over this cover. Then split logs were fitted into the neck of the pit. The whole of the neck was then heaped full of dry grass which was trampled down hard. Then a second cover of bull hide was fitted and covered with ashes and refuse to hide any sign of the pit.

HUNTING AND FORAGING

The systems used by the Hidatsa,Mandan, and Arikara in their agriculturally based society were quite complex. Ideas of planting times, techniques, nurturing the crops, and harvesting and storing were all important to ensure adequate supplies of food. This food base was supplemented by hunting and foraging.

Because of their huge numbers, the buffalo were an important part of the food supply of not only the nomadic tribes but also the agriculturally based Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara. Buffalo are relatively docile animals which tended to herd. Buffalo hunting was not considered a sporting event (Figure 8). Charms, superstitions and ceremonies emphasized that the hunt was a solemn undertaking controlled by the supernatural forces. Buffalo calling ceremonies were used by the Hidatsa and Mandan in order to charm nearby herds into coming closer to the villages.

It was reported by early observers that such ceremonies always worked since they went on and on, sometimes several weeks, until the buffalo appeared. When word was received that a herd was nearby, most camps did not immediately rush into the hunt. Such a serious undertaking as the hunt, upon which the well being of the entire group depended, could not be gambled on the whims of the individual hunters. If the hunters spread out indiscriminately, each trying to procure a buffalo for his own lodge, a major herd might be scattered leaving the whole group near starvation. To ensure a cooperative group effort, a governing council made up of experienced hunters and those with spiritual power, planned and kept the discipline on each hunt. Young men and boys went on the hunts as cooks, fire tenders, porters, etc., to gain experience in the workings of a hunt before they were allowed to partake in the actual hunt. Techniques ranged from simple shooting of individual animals to complicated systems involving decoys, carefully constructed traps, individuals hunting on foot to entire villages organizing drives and jumps which would supply great numbers of animals in a single outing.

A very early method of group hunting was the foot surround, in which a long line of men on foot gradually encircled a herd and then moved in for the kill. About 1750, the horse was introduced to the people living on the northern plains. This animal changed many of the techniques used earlier for procuring buffalo meat. Very quickly hunters learned to ride horses directly into a group of buffalo and herd one away. After the one was cut from the herd, the rider would approach very near and shoot the animal with bow and arrow. Highly trained horses called buffalo runners became very valuable. This form of hunting replaced many older proven techniques because even with the herd dispersed, great distances could be covered using horses.

While the buffalo was the most important animal to the Indian of the Upper Great Plains, there were a variety of other animals that furnished much meat for the Missouri River valley dwellers. The black-tailed (mule) deer was one such animal. This animal has a tendency to stop after it has been initially flushed, usually turning broadside to the hunter for one look before going over a rise, making it relatively easy to hunt. Indian hunters were aware of such movements and would wait for this moment before releasing their first arrows. The white-tailed deer is more wary and the hunters would let fly immediately whenever they startled one. These animals were important not only for food, but also because their hides could easily be tanned and used for many items of dress and costume. Elk were hunted in much the same way as deer. Tanned elk hides were prized for moccasins and costume parts because they are thicker and larger. Big horn sheep were uncommon, so whenever a hunter was successful in harvesting one of these animals, much care was taken in the treatment of the hide and meat. Antelope have a "herd instinct", and were generally taken in a pound or trap. This was accomplished by driving the group over the edge of a bluff or cliff into a trap set at the bottom.

The butchering of antelope was similar to that of deer. The liver and kidneys were frequently eaten raw, while the butchering was being done. Although the hide was important, usually the freshly butchered meat was protected with it until transported back to the village.

Bird hunting was done by younger boys with the bow and arrow. If a boy hunted alone, he kept all of his game. If two boys hunted together, each was entitled to the game of the other. If there were more than two, the one who picked up the game kept it. Birds such as mourning doves, bob-o-links, blackbirds and other smaller songbirds were hunted. Meadow-larks were not usually hunted, since there were some fears of eating them.

Birds were given to either the boy's grandmother or mother, who would place them in the fireplace ashes and cover them with coals. When the roasted birds were removed from the ashes, the feathers and skin would fall off, the entrails would be removed, and the birds were ready to eat. They were considered a delicacy. Small game such as gophers, prairie dogs and rabbits were hunted and were relished as being good food.

The people who lived along the Missouri River were not as dependent upon fishing as some of the tribes along the Columbia River and coastal areas, but fish did form a part of their diet. The main method of procurement was the fish trap. Only certain men who had purchased the right made these fish traps. These rights were sacred. Traps could be made by the ones with the right to do so for other's use, but this would also have to be purchased. In general, the traps were four willow mats consisting of one hundred willows each, attached to twelve willow poles stuck in the mud of the bottom of the river in an area where the water was about three feet deep. Sticks with leaves left on were put near the trap. Rotten meat was attached to the gate of the trap to attract the fish. When the leaves of the trap shook, the trap was full and the gate was closed. The man would then enter the trap and scoop out the fish using cone-shaped willow baskets.

There was no attempt to preserve fish; they were eaten at the time they were caught. Fish trapping was undertaken in the fall and catfish were the main catch. Usually the fish were boiled without skinning. This preparation not only produced a welcome change from their usual corn and meat but also created a strong broth which was enjoyed with the meal.

When food was in adequate supply three meals were taken daily. A main dish made of dried corn pounded into a coarse meal, boiled with meat, was the usual fare. A change could be made by adding beans, squash, sunflowers, berries, different herbs or whatever was ripe in the season. There was a general order to the serving, with the more highly respected individuals eating first. The woman doing the serving ate last. If the food supply was not sufficient, she would refrain from eating, although she might cook something for herself later. Whenever a guest entered the lodge, food was offered (Figure 9).

As a general rule, meat was eaten daily. Often the cooked ribs of a buffalo might be kept beside the fire so that anyone might take a piece when hungry. One method of roasting was by suspending a side of a buffalo over a fire using a rope fastened to the top of the lodge. The fire would be maintained and the side of meat pushed and twisted by the cook once in a while so that it would swing and turn gently in the heat. This difficult task was usually the work of men.

The drying of meat was the most widely used method of preservation. The meat would be cut into chunks, then sliced in thin layers. These long, thin pieces would then be hung on racks in the sun to dry. At times the meat might be partially roasted and dried over a fire. The meat was cut just thin enough so that flies could not lay eggs in it. Also the use of a fire discouraged insect activity.

To make pemmican (a high energy, light, compact food), dried meat was pounded with a heavy hammerstone in a mortar. The pounded meat was then mixed with tallow, bone marrow and pounded dried berries. Molded into small bars or balls and carried when travelling, pemmican could be stored for long periods of time in buffalo paunch (stomach) bags or other small containers such as the tough layer of tissue around the buffalo heart.

Not much was wasted in food processing. For example, the bone fat would be extracted by splitting the long bones and boiling. The grease floating on the surface of the water would be skimmed off and collected or the water might be cooled allowing the grease to harden. Bone grease was often stored in a section of the large intestine of the buffalo. The bone broth that was left was usually used as a warm drink with meals.

Box elder sap provided a drink with a flavor similar to maple syrup. In addition, there were a number of teas: one from the inner bark of the elm tree, another from the bark of wild roses.

Many wild berries were used. Crushed with a stone hammer or mortar, the pulp, pits, and skin were worked together, and formed into balls. They were allowed to dry before eating. Considered a special treat, these would last for an indefinite period, although they would ordinarily be eaten during the winter.

QUESTIONS:

How did the Hidatsa, Mandan, and Arikara preserve meats and vegetables?

How did the Hidasta, Mandan, and Arikara prepare food for eating?

What are some agricultural products for which we are indebted to Native Americans?

Compare today's farming methods with those of the past.

Compare the sources of energy or power used today with those used in the past.

List animals which once lived in North Dakota.



ACTIVITIES:

Plant beans. Record their growth.

Prepare traditional foods using traditional methods.

Make traditional farming tools: scapula hoe, willow rake, digging
stick, antler rake.

Experiment with drying foods: corn, squash or meat. Record your
observations and results.

Construct hunting equipment such as a bow, arrows or traps.

Build a fish trap model.

List uses for bone grease, past and present.

Forage for things that can be eaten.

Make sunflower seed balls.