UNIT 3...HOUSING and TRANSPORTATION

HOUSING

When most people think of the American Indian and his dwelling, the familiar tipi (sometimes spelled tepee or teepee) comes to mind (Figure 10). While the Hidatsa, Mandan and other dwellers along the upper Missouri did use the tipi for shelter while hunting or traveling, their principal dwelling was the earthlodge (Figure 11). The earthlodge probably had its origins in the eastern part of North America. This structure may have developed from the long house. These long rectangular bark or grass covered structures were very adequate for woodland areas but would not have been satisfactory in the harsh environment of the Plains.

The basic structure consisted of four large cottonwood logs set vertically in the ground, with heavy cross-members connecting the top of one with that of the next, to form a square (Figure 12). Around this, in a circle, smaller upright logs were placed. The tops of these were connected to each other by cross beams also. Then a series of smaller but longer beams were laid between the inner square and the outer circle to support the roof, and from the outer circle to the ground to create walls. After the main rafters were set in place, smaller branches would be laid over them to provide a fairly solid layer. Next, willow branches were laid over this and layers of grasses and sod were placed on top. A layer of clay packed on the outer roof made the earthlodge impervious to rain or snow.

The earthlodge lasted from seven to perhaps ten years. When it became evident that a lodge was deteriorating past any further use or repair, several members of the family (women, blood relatives) were invited to participate in the wrecking operation. There was a belief that every time a lodge was destroyed a storm would appear, so the people always tried to begin on a clear day with no wind. As was the case with the original building, the women did most of the work, while the men helped with the heavy lifting, such as with main uprights or large beams. Much of the material was salvaged and reused. Due to the scarcity of wood in this area, that which could not be reused in the new lodge was saved for firewood.

There was a general plan for the arrangement of the interior of an earthlodge (Figure 13). As with the tipi, there was a certain etiquette or protocol to be followed when activities or ceremonies took place within the lodge. This was true with nearly all tribes, no matter what the type of dwelling. The place for the male leader of the household was directly opposite the door (Figure 14). It was impolite to cross between the fire and any person without asking permission. When smoking a pipe, it was passed only to the
left. Tipis were erected so that the door and smoke flaps faced east or southeast.

Within the earthlodge, there was a section opposite the door that was reserved as a sacred place (Figure 15). This was the place for medicine bundles, a shrine, or anything related to religion. In the central portion of the lodge was the cooking fire, with seats located in a small semi-circle around the fire pit. The opening of the semi-circle would face the sacred place. Beds of family members were located around the outside of the earthlodge. These beds were built somewhat like an old "four poster" bed, with privacy drapes made from hides or blankets draped over frames. A small corral, just large enough to contain a few horses was located inside the doorway. Cache pits were located in the earthlodge for storage of food reserves. Often, a sweat lodge was located within the lodge. This small willow framework was draped with hides or blankets. Heated stones were placed within this structure, and water was splashed on the stones to create steam. When a ceremony or other major event was to take place, the leaders would enter the sweat lodge in order to purify themselves for the impending rites.

While the tipi was not the principal type of dwelling for the people of the Knife River Villages, it was used as an alternate style of housing especially when hunting or traveling or when repairing an earthlodge. The tipi covering was made from buffalo hides. June was the best time to procure hides for the tipi cover. The summer buffalo cow hide was the best because it was fairly large, did not have any heavy fat layers, and its hair could be removed quite easily. Approximately thirteen hides were used in the average size tipi cover. Nearly one fourth of one mile of stitching was required to fasten the hides together.

Only certain women performed particular duties in making a tipi cover, and only a few did the cutting and matching of the skins. This knowledge was passed on within the family, or was conditionally sold to someone else. In some tribes, this was a right possessed by only one woman in the village.

Preparing hides was heavy manual labor. First, the hides were fleshed by carefully scraping the inside layers away. Next, they were dehaired either by scraping with an elkhorn scraper or by causing the hair to slip. This slipping was accomplished by soaking the hide in water or burying it in damp soil for several days. This procedure loosened the hair making it easy to remove. Next, the skin was washed thoroughly, and a mash made of brains (and sometimes the liver) of the animal was completely worked through the hide over a period of several days. While the hide was drying, it was carefully worked to retain the softness of the tanning process. This softening of the hide continued until it was completely dry. The hide was now ready for assembly into the tipi cover.

A skin tipi might last two to three years, depending upon the amount of traveling done, and the weather during its use. New covers were very light in color. As time went on, the top portions became darkened with smoke from the fires inside, even though the fires were kept small. After replacing the cover, the old one was cut up for moccasin soles and other useful items. Leather of this kind was nearly indestructible and permanently waterproofed because it had been so thoroughly smoked.

One kind of pine tree was so commonly used for tipi poles that it acquired the name "Lodge Pole Pine". The people from the Knife River Villages traveled to Montana and the Black Hills of South Dakota to cut poles. Trading groups also supplied these poles. In general the number of poles used on a tipi ranged from twelve to seventeen. Some groups used a three pole foundations while other groups used four poles for their foundation. After the foundation poles were lashed together and erected, additional poles were laid into the crotches created. A space was left on the side opposite the door (the back) for the lifting pole. The cover was attached to the lifting pole at the top. Then cover and lifting pole were fitted into place. The two sides of the cover were drawn around the framework and pinned together. Then the cover was staked in place and the poles were adjusted to pull the cover tight. The door usually opened to the east, perhaps because of prevailing winds and weather from the west or to catch the morning sun.

TRANSPORTATION

For thousands of years, Native Americans traveled on foot. Until the introduction of the horse a few hundred years ago, the only animal used as a beast of burden was the dog. Dogs were bred from wolf stock and were found with every tribe by the time white men arrived. Since the Hidatsa and Mandan did not have the wheel, their dogs dragged a triangular wooden framework called a travois, which carried loads up to one hundred pounds (Figure 16). Dogs were being utilized to haul firewood into the last earthlodge village, Like-A-Fishhook, as late as the 1860's.

It is interesting to note that it is believed the horse originated on the North American Continent. Thousands of years ago, the ancestors of the horse disappeared from North and South America, leaving no survivors. The horse was reintroduced to North America by the Spanish during their conquest of what is now Mexico and the southwestern United States. When the Indians acquired this large or magic dog, they were able to make the adaptations necessary to allow drastic changes in their lifestyle. Hunting methods changed from operations on foot to ones of great skill and excitement. The ability to move large loads over long distances allowed the Indians more mobility than they had ever known.

Horses reached the upper Missouri region about 1750, when the Hidatsa and Mandan were living in permanent villages. The horse allowed other groups from greater distances to come to the villages to trade as well as to raid the Hidatsa and Mandan (Figure 17).

Nomadic tribes such as the Crow, Cheyenne, and Sioux became some of the finest horsemen the world has ever known. They also became skilled at breeding and caring for horses. The Nez Perce Indians developed one of the outstanding breeds of horse recognized today--the Appaloosa. The use of saddles, bridles, hobbles, and other related items became an important part of Plains Indian culture. The Hidatsa and Mandan even modified their earthlodges to accommodate their best horses during bad weather or in time of siege, by incorporating a small corral just inside the door.

For traveling on the Missouri and Knife Rivers, the Hidatsa and Mandan had the "bull boat", a round-framed, tub-like boat made from a buffalo hide stretched over a willow framework (Figure 18). Due to its round shape and lack of keel, it was paddled from the front. It was satisfactory for the purpose of crossing rivers or carrying cargo. The Hidatsa hunted upstream from their villages, so after a successful hunt they would load bullboats with dried meat and send them back to the villages on the current of the river. At times as many as twenty bullboats might be lashed together after being filled with meat. The hunters followed their progress from shore as this flotilla made its way downstream. If several boats were traveling together in bad weather or rough water, the occupants would reach out and hold onto each other's boat, thus creating a makeshift barge. When white traders arrived at the villages, they were ferried across the rivers in bullboats, thus keeping their trade goods, horse trappings and clothing dry (Figure 19).

The snowshoe did not develop here, but it was used in several modified forms by American Indians living in North Dakota. Sleds and toboggans were used during the winter; some utilized buffalo ribs as runners and were pulled by two or three dogs.

QUESTIONS:

Describe an earthlodge.

What are some advantages and disadvantages to living in an earthlodge?

Why was the tipi used at certain times of the year by the Villagers?

Which groups of people used tipis all year?

What is the most common and important single method of transportation on earth? Why?

What other methods of travel were used by Native Americans?

What animal made the greatest change in the way of life of the Plains Indian? Why?

Why do people travel from one place to another? Why did Native American have to move from time to time?

What were some of the major problems and obstacles in transportation for these people?

What are some of the differences between travel long ago and today in terms of preparation and time?



ACTIVITIES:

Build a model of an earthlodge.

Build a model tipi.

Build a model of an earthlodge village or tipi camp.

Visit the North Dakota Heritage Center on the capital grounds in Bismarck, ND to see a full size buffalo hide tipi, a bull boat, a fish trap, and much more.

Build a model travois to show how the Indians moved a tipi from one place to another.

On your visit to the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, pay close attention to the reproduction of a full-scale earthlodge, and also to the archeological remains of the villages.

Compare three-pole and four-pole tipi foundations (See Laubin, The Indian Tipi).

Bring in snowshoes or other pieces of equipment which the Indians invented or devised for travel.

Make a model of a bullboat.

Make a pair of snowshoes.

Study the various breeds of horses used today. Which breeds may have been influenced by the Indians? How?