The Creek War of 1813-1814 began as a civil war within the Creek Nation. Inspired by the fiery eloquence of Tecumseh and their own prophets, Creeks known as Red Sticks sought to aggressively return their society to a traditional way of life. Creek leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands and the civilizing programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. This civil war would ultimately lead to a Red Stick attack on Fort Mims, near Mobile on August 30, 1813 which left 247 dead and spread panic throughout the American southwestern frontier.

In response to the massacre at Fort Mims, Tennessee, Georgia and the Mississippi Territory sent armies deep into the Creek country. Outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their wilderness strongholds but valor and the magic of their prophets failed to halt the converging armies. On March 27, 1814 General Andrew Jackson's Tennessee militia, aided by the 39th U. S. Infantry Regiment and Cherokee and Creek allies, finally crushed Red Stick resistance at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Jackson's decisive victory at Horseshoe Bend broke the power of the Creek Nation.

On August 9, 1814 the Creeks were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which ceded 23 million acres to the United States government. With the Red Stick menace subdued, Andrew Jackson was able to focus on the Gulf coast region and defeat the British at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. As a result of his victories over the Red Sticks and British, Jackson became a national figure and eventually rose to become the seventh President of the United States in 1829.

Last Updated: Thursday, July 17, 2003 2:34 PM

Red Sticks - Known as Red Sticks among the whites because of their red war clubs, this group of Creeks aggressively supported traditional views of Creek society. Inspired by the prophets of Tecumseh and angered by what they saw as the unrestrained encroachment of white culture and beliefs on their way of life, Red Sticks went to war against many of their own people who had close ties with the whites.

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Peter McQueen - ca. 1780-1820. Son of a Scottish trader and a Creek woman. McQueen lead a group of Tallassees in the Red Stick faction of the Upper Creeks. Was present at Burnt Corn Creek and Fort Mims. After the Red Sticks were defeated at Horseshoe Bend, McQueen along with other Red Stick warriors retreated into Florida and continued to fight during the First Seminole War.

William Weatherford - also known as Red Eagle. Son of a Scottish trader and a Creek woman. Participated in the attack on Fort Mims and was the leader of the Red Sticks at the Holy Ground.

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Menawa - 1765- ca. 1843. Son of a white trader and a Creek woman. Known in his youth as Hothlepoya or "Crazy War Hunter" for his prowess as a warrior along the Tennessee and Georgia frontiers. Supported the Red Stick cause during the Creek civil war and led Red Stick warriors at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Although seriously wounded, Menawa survived the battle and subsequently served in the First Seminole War as an ally of the United States. He is believed to have died after Creek removal to the western territories about 1843.

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Benjamin Hawkins (1754-1816) - Agent for Indian Affairs in the South: George Washington referred to him as "that ingenious gentleman;" among the Indian tribes of the south he was known as the "Beloved Man of the Four Nations." A sincere man of broad intellect and high ideals, Benjamin Hawkins of North Carolina held the respect of Presidents and Indian chiefs alike. President George Washington appointed Benjamin Hawkins to the post of Indian Agent in 1796. Through a program designed to introduce the "civilizing" influences of agriculture and animal husbandry to Creek culture, Hawkins hoped to alleviate increasing social pressures among the Creeks and engender harmonious coexistence with the whites.

The "civilizing" policy of the United States government and Hawkins personal influence on the Creek National Council unfortunately served to aggravate tensions which eventually led to civil war among the Creeks in the summer of 1813. During the Creek War of 1813-1814, Hawkins organized the friendly Creeks under Major William McIntosh to aid the Georgia and Tennessee militias during their forays against the Red Sticks. After the Red Stick defeat at Horseshoe Bend, activities in Georgia and Tennessee prevented Hawkins from moderating the Treaty of Fort Jackson in August 1814. Hawkins later organized friendly Creeks against a British force on the Apalachicola River that threatened to rally the scattered Red Sticks and reignite the war on the Georgia frontier. After the British withdrew in 1815 Hawkins began organizing a force to secure the area when he died from a sudden illness in June 1816.
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