Background

Glacier National Park and the surrounding Crown of the Continent ecosystem harbor an unusually intact assemblage of native wildlife species. Unlike the rest of the Lower Forty-eight of the USA , most native species that were historically found in Glacier are still found here. Bison and mountain caribou have been lost in the past 200 years, but most species such as grizzly bears, mountain goats, Harlequin Ducks, Common Loons, Black-backed Woodpeckers, and boreal toads still breed in Glacier. Because most of the native species are still present in Glacier, the populations of these species are important to populations elsewhere. Glacier might be a reservoir for declining populations outside of the park. Glacier also serves as a potential corridor linking populations outside of the park genetically. Perhaps Glacier's greatest gift is what it can offer scientists who are interested in the effects of management actions such as logging, mining, and grazing on wildlife species. With its more natural conditions and more intact complement of species, Glacier would be a good “control” area for comparison with areas managed for commodity production.

While almost the full complement of wildlife species is still found in Glacier, some of the ecosystems probably function differently than they once did. Nonnative plants and animals have been introduced and natural processes such as fire have been altered so the systems may not function similarly to how they did before the park was created. Also, loss of wildlife species outside of the park is likely to affect the health of species inside the park through loss of immigrant individuals and genetic diversity.

The aquatic ecosystems are not as pristine as the terrestrial systems. 23 fish species (15 native and 7 nonnative) inhabit lakes and rivers in the park. Many of the lakes (including fishless lakes) and rivers have been radically changed by the planting of exotic fish. Popular sport fishes were introduced time and again. Even many of the native fish species were planted in areas where they were not found historically. While fish introductions in Glacier have ceased, the effects of these introductions will be long-lasting. Nonnative fish produce 2 kinds of disturbance: (1) corruption of indigenous gene pools and (2) alterations to ecological relationships. 15 native fish species still are found in Glacier, but the population numbers of several of these species are low compared to historic numbers. There is great concern for bull trout (federally listed as threatened) in particular. Bull trout are still found in many lakes but their numbers are low and they are not reproducing as well as they once did.

Some of the greater research needs for fish and wildlife species include estimating the status and trends of all fish and wildlife species, understanding spatial scale and connectivity within and outside of the park, and determining the effects of recreation on wildlife and fish (also discussed in social sciences section). Specific research projects are enumerated below.

Research Needs

Amphibians

Examine the genetics of amphibian populations. Are amphibians in Glacier NP subdivided genetically? If so, what are the barriers to gene flow? For example, do lakes with fish act as barriers and increase genetic fragmentation?

What are the environmental influences (e.g., weather, topography, vegetation) on dispersal of metamorphosed amphibians from breeding areas?

Why are tailed frogs scarce in the northwest quarter of Glacier NP?

Further elucidate the status, trends, and distribution of amphibian species in Glacier National Park . Document breeding locations for tailed frogs and boreal toads.

Study the effects of climate change on amphibian distribution and health.

Birds

Quantify biotic and abiotic attributes of Common Loon habitat and determine cause and effect relationships among loons and environmental and human disturbance factors.

Assess the health of Common Loon populations in Glacier. Use non-invasive observational techniques to study Common Loon nesting behavior and success. Gather information on primary and alternate nest locations, brood-rearing and foraging sites, territorial boundaries, areas of greatest vulnerability to predation or human interference, staging areas, and the timing of nesting activity.

Inventory avian species that use whitebark pine stands. Determine species occurrences, nesting activity, and habitat selection in whitebark pine. Estimate the effects of the loss of whitebark pine on species that utilize this habitat.

Conduct systematic (diurnal) raptor nesting surveys, develop computerized nest record data base, and monitor nesting activity and productivity.

Determine the ecological conditions of the Upper McDonald Valley in relation to the high-density and high-productivity nesting population of Harlequin Ducks. Sampling riparian vegetation, water quality and aquatic invertebrates in relation to Harlequin Duck productivity will provide a description of abiotic and biotic conditions important to this duck population. Evaluate human impacts from roads, trails, campgrounds, picnic areas, and administrative sites on Harlequin Duck numbers and nesting success.

Determine the distribution and habitat relationships of nocturnal owls in developed, roadside, and backcountry areas. Conduct nest surveys for Boreal and Great Gray Owls in developed areas.

Determine songbird distribution, frequency of occurrence, and reproductive success among different vegetation communities. Create bird-habitat relationship models.

Inventory, monitor, and analyze the presence, behavior, and impacts of European Starlings on native birds.

Inventory, monitor, and analyze the presence, behavior, and impacts of Brown-headed Cowbirds on nesting success of native birds. Investigate the relationships among and distances between foraging, roosting, and nest parasitism areas.

Document migration by Golden Eagles and other raptors through Glacier National Park. Knowledge of numbers, species, timing, routes, weather, and other related factors is needed.

Determine current and potential wildlife diseases present in the park. Develop a monitoring program for the incidences of wildlife diseases.

Assess the timberline race of the Brewer's Sparrow in Glacier NP. The distribution, population status, and habitat requirements of this race (potentially a separate species) are unknown.

Survey for Black Swift nesting colonies, emphasizing areas at or near waterfalls. The extent of the occurrence and health of these nesting colonies are unknown.

Determine the distribution, status and trend of Harlequin Ducks on streams in Glacier NP. Occupancy and productivity on upper McDonald Creek has been relatively well documented, but little is known about use and productivity on other streams.

Develop a protocol for sampling Clark 's Nutcracker populations to determine distribution and trend.

Determine the distribution, status and trend of forest-nesting raptors, especially Northern Goshawks, Cooper's Hawks, and Sharp-shinned Hawks.

Fish

Repeat a parkwide inventory of lakes to identify fish species present and their DNA composition.

Analyze human use of native fish on fish populations in Glacier NP. The impact of the loss of biomass, nutrients, energy and forage on aquatic food webs is completely unknown.

What is the degree of hybridization in native bull trout? Conduct fish inventories and genetic analyses of bull trout and cutthroat trout populations in selected park lakes and streams. The major concern is that hybridization and/or introgression between native and introduced trout may have progressed significantly during the past two decades or occurred recently among populations where genetic corruption was not previously recorded.

Develop practical strategies that will enable native species to co-exist more successfully with introduced fishes in Lake McDonald basin. Document the scale of damage to important fish habitats in the basin, and the consequences of human manipulations on the lake's trophic structure, including the indigenous fishery. Evaluate the feasibility of selected mitigating actions that could forestall or possibly halt further degradation of the system. Experiment with control measures aimed at suppressing lake trout numbers. Identify key life history requirements essential for the continued existence of native fish in the basin. Explore opportunities to enhance spawning success and improve the survival of native fish.

Study the bull trout population in Upper Kintla Lake. Document food habits, age and growth characteristics, movements, reproductive biology, pathology, and parasites associated with this population. Establish the taxonomic status of the population and identify any special life-history adaptations unique to this population.

Invertebrates

Conduct basic inventories of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrate species.

Compare species diversity, relative abundance, composition, and endemism of invertebrate species (e.g., bees, butterflies, spiders) among vegetation communities.

Mammals

Capture and radio-track mountain lions within selected park areas to learn more about home range characteristics, seasonal habitat use, wolf-lion interactions, food habits, reproductive success, and behavior of mountain lions in response to human activity. Determine an index of relative abundance and establish long-term population monitoring protocols.

Design an experimental approach to assessing management techniques for habituated and conditioned bears, including enforcement, public and employee education, hazing, and aversive conditioning.

Conduct an inventory of wildlife species in grasslands to detect current winter and summer utilization and correlations to grassland condition and composition.

Determine species distribution of bat species, habitat affinities, and abundance, especially in areas near human habitation. Specifically, (1) inspect the few known abandoned mines and natural caves for use by bats, (2) survey and evaluate highway structures (bridges and culverts) for bat use, (3) inventory selected park buildings for bat use in and adjacent to developed areas where human-bat conflicts are most likely, (4) conduct a preliminary inventory of bats in an array of natural habitats to aid in the development of habitat use models, and (5) offer guidance for the creation of a comprehensive park-wide survey method.

Determine distribution of forest carnivores. Investigate alternative detection methods including remote camera locations. Conduct hair trap surveys to determine minimum population information, correlation with track records, and genetic history.

Investigate the distribution, population numbers and status, movement patterns, and habitat use of lynx in and immediately adjacent to Glacier National Park using the National Lynx Detection Protocol, or some modification of it, and radio-telemetry. Remote tracking of radio-instrumented animals would address natality and mortality (reproductive success and survival), movement patterns, habitat use, and interactions with humans.

Determine snowshoe hare dynamics relative to forest carnivores. Determine the vegetative and browse characteristics associated with high snowshoe hare densities and assess predator distribution with respect to different snowshoe hare densities. Evaluate whether snowshoe hare numbers change in a way consistent with the 10-year cyclicity shown by hares in other parts of their range, because knowing whether hares cycle is critical for understanding population changes in their predators.

Identify grizzly bear transboundary movement patterns and study how these patterns are affected by human disturbance.

Study grizzly bear behavior and habitat use in response to human use of Glacier NP. Compare to bear behavior and activity patterns outside of the park.

Determine the social and nutritional roles of Apgar Mountain for grizzly and black bears. Investigate the effect of human activity on surrounding lands on bear activity patterns and use of this area.

Monitor wolf populations within the park and on immediately adjacent lands through use of radio-collars on selected individuals. Determine denning activity, reproductive success, and dispersal of pack members.

Determine regional habitat needs of park ungulate species. Ungulates move into and out of the park. Describe ungulate movements, habitats utilized, migratory routes, seasonal activity, and responses to habitat alterations.

Conduct field experiments on the behavioral responses of deer and mountain goats to aversive conditioning techniques, focusing on the techniques determined to be the most promising based on literature review and consultation. The goal is to identify an effective deterrent to habituated deer and mountain goats that can be used by field personnel to achieve a reasonable level of behavioral modification.

Investigate the occurrence and distribution of small mammals (deer mice, voles, lemmings, shrews, snowshoe hares, and red squirrels).

Provide critical information to park managers so that a healthy wolverine population can be maintained within Glacier National Park and restored in appropriate areas elsewhere. Study wolverine productivity, behavior, habitat needs, travel routes and the effects of human disturbance on wolverines.

Determine the status, trend, and distribution of porcupines in Glacier.

Investigate whether pika numbers are declining in Glacier as they are elsewhere in the West.

Determine the distribution, relative abundance, status and trend of red squirrels, and the feasibility of using red squirrel abundance to track the status of predatory species, especially the Northern Goshawk, and indirectly the Canada lynx.

Reptiles

Determine the distribution, status, and trends of the painted turtle ( Chrysemys picta ) and two species of garter snakes ( Thamnophis elegans and T. sirtalis ).