Ebey's Landing National Historical Reserve The Land, The People, The Place: An Introduction to the Inventory

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND ETHNOGRAPHIC SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

This report provides background information about previously identified prehistoric sites located in the Whidbey Island National Historical Reserve. Since there is a fair amount of information available about nineteenth century Native use of Central Whidbey Island an ethnographic section has been included.

The report is divided into three sections. First, the natural environment of Whidbey Island and the reserve are described. The second section reviews ethnographic information important to our understanding of Native American use and occupation of Central Whidbey Island. A third section reviews the history of previously conducted archeology of Central Whidbey Island.

I. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

Whidbey Island is located in northern Puget Sound, western Washington. The island extends for a distance of about forty miles, north to south, and varies between 1-10 miles in width (Ness et. al. 1958:3). Admiralty Inlet, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the Olympic Peninsula lie to the west of Whidbey Island. Camano Island lies to the east of Whidbey Island. Together, Camano and Whidbey Island lie adjacent to the mainland just off the coast from Skagit and Snohomish counties, Washington. North of Whidbey Island are the San Juan Islands, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and the Georgia Strait. The Skagit and Stillaguamish rivers drain from the Cascade mountains, cross the Puget Lowland, and enter northern Puget Sound along the coast to the east of Whidbey and Camano islands.

Physiography, Soils and Vegetation

The island's relief is best described as gently rolling. Physiographic characteristics are largely derived from the effects of the advance and retreat of the Puget Lobe of the Frazer glaciation during the late Pleistocene. A separate geology section below discusses the island's Pleistocene glacial history.

Uplands on the island mostly range in elevation from between 100 to 300 feet (Ness et. al. 1958:3). The higher upland areas are located outside the project area in the southern portion of the island and at the extreme northern tip of the island. Uplands in the project area include the Fort Casey Uplands with elevations of about 180 feet, and the San de Fuca Uplands and the West Woodlands with elevations of about 250 feet. Prior to lumbering activities, the vegetation on the uplands was characterized by the Douglas fir-hemlock forest cover typical of western Washington (White 1980, Franklin and Dryness 1973, Ness et. al. 1958).

The forested upland areas are broken by natural prairies in the central portion of the island. Ebey's Prairie and a portion of Smith and Crockett Prairie are located in the project area. These prairies are edaphic and they are thought to have developed on areas that had once been glacial lakes, sloughs, marine areas, or glacial channels which had emptied into the heads of small inlets (Ness et. al. 1958:15-17,18). Prairie vegetation at contact is expected to have included bulbous plants such as camas. native grasses, and shrubs (Ness et. al. 1958:5, Thompson 1978: 26).

Geology

The surface features of Whidbey Island are derived from the most recent Pleistocene glacial advance of the area: the Puget Lobe of the Vashon Stade of the Frazer glaciation (Ness et. al. 1958, Easterbrook 1969, Huntting et. al. 1961). During the Vashon advance, Puget Sound and the surrounding lowlying areas were covered with continental ice to about fifteen miles south of Olympia (Armstrong et. al. 1965:323,327, Thorson 1980:307, Easterbrook 1968:4).

On Whidbey Island, this advance left proglacial outwash sands at the lowest Vashon levels of Whidbey Island. These sands are overlain by Vashon till deposited during the time the Vashon ice occupied the Puget Lowlands. Finally, with the retreat of the ice from the area, glacial-marine drift and post depositional gravels were deposited on the island (Easterbrook 1962, 1968, 1969).

Radiocarbon dates from different Vashon depositional units date the retreat of the Vashon ice from the island at about 12,500 to 13,000 B.P. (Easterbrook 1968:27). The implication for the archeological record is that land would not have been available for human occupation on Whidbey Island until an ice-free time after about 12,500 to 13,000 B.P. Occupation may have been much later due to apparently high relative sea levels immediately following the retreat of the Vashon ice as indicated by glacial-marine sediments at the highest levels of the island.

It is expected that the surface area of the island has changed during the Holocene with changing relative sea levels. The immediate worldwide Holocene trend following the retreat of the continental glaciers at the end of the Pleistocene was: 1) rising eustatic sea levels, and; 2) isostatic rebound (Flint 1971).

Easterbrook (1962, 1966, 1969), Bierdman (1967), Larsen (1971, 1972), Huesser (1960), and Mathews et. al. (1972) have presented different sequences for sea level oscillations during the Holocene for the Pacific Northwest. There is disagreement among Northwest researchers about the sequence and duration of periods of emergence and submergence for the Holocene. Some of these studies have been of local areas; other studies have used information from different areas of the Northwest to present a general sequence of sea level change for a broad area of the Pacific Northwest. Some variation is expected since differences such as local density and thickness of the Vashon ice, local geologic structure, and tectonic movement have affected the local rate of isostatic adjustment and hence relative sea-level changes in different areas (Flint 1971, Easterbrook 1962, Thornsen 1980).

Studies which would provide information about a local sequence of Holocene sea level changes for Central Whidbey Island have not been conducted. It is, however, possible to assess the effects that changing relative sea levels would have on the archeological record of the island. Simply put, sites may have been elevated or submerged since the original time of their deposition during the Holocene. As a result, certain types of sites for certain periods may be missing from the island's archeological record due to submergence (see discussion in Grebmier 1983, Thompson 1978, Fladmark 1975, Graebert and Larsen 1973).

II. ETHNOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Puget Sound Area Native American Subsistence Activities

The Pacific Northwest Coast has a large ethnographic literature describing the native groups that were encountered at contact. Subsistence activities have been documented for native groups of the Puget Sound area by authors such as Barnett (1955), Collins (1971), Haeberlin and Gunther (1930), Snyder (1964), Smith (1940), Stern (1934), and Suttles (1951).

The general subsistence pattern for the area can best be described as an extractive food producing economy. Resources of the area, and the Pacific Northwest as a whole, are abundant and varied, but widely scattered and available only during certain seasons of the year. The seasonal pattern was one in which families would disperse into small groups following a winter of common residence at a village site. The families would establish food producing camps for the spring, summer, and fall in loci of seasonally available foods. Camps would be located to gather berries, roots, shell-fish, and to fish. Food surpluses which were generated during the spring, summer, and fall supported life in the winter villages when families were reunited for the winter season. In spring another cycle of annual dispersal would begin again.

In discussing the Lower Skagit, Snyder (1964:72) points out that solitary work and small work parties were limited to certain resources and techniques. Berry picking, for example, could be done alone or as a cooperative venture. Other activities such as salmon fishing were always conducted by groups of families. Snyder also discusses the importance of Skagit society leaders for their role in directing the family groups to different resources, and in prioritizing resource collection to insure adequate collection if two or more resources were available at the same time (Snyder 1964:72-74).

Bennett (1972), Snyder (1964), and Collins (1974) provide useful summaries of Skagit society and may be consulted for further information about the Skagit.

Campbell (1981) and Thompson (1978) warn against the uncritical use of ethnographic data to model prehistoric settlement patterns. Thompson (1978:41-42) notes that the ethnographic information available to us about Northwest groups was recorded at least 150 years after the most recent time the native life way could have been practiced unaltered. Alterations came long before face-to-face contact and the first written Anglo accounts of native groups. The most devastating of these changes was the loss of population through contact with diseases of European origin. Other changes came with the adoption of metal tools and new foods of European origin (Thompson 1978:42).

At best, the ethnographic record is an account of traditional systems during a period of collapse or adjustment. As such, it may not be a good model for interpreting prehistoric settlement patterns and land use. Ethnographic information may, however, provide the archeologist with information about the range of possible kinds of prehistoric land use (Campbell 1981:58-59).

Central Whidbey Island Native Groups

Ethnographic and historical references show that the Klallam and Lower Skagit used or occupied portions of Central Whidbey Island included in the project area.

The Klallam are reported to have occupied the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca between Port Discovery and the Hoko river. Later they expanded into the territory of the Chemakum in the Port Townsend area and to southern Vancouver Island (Swanton 1952:419, Gunther 1927:177). Gunther (1927:177) cites an earlier reference of Curtis (1913:9) which reports Klallam settlements on the upper west coast of Whidbey Island, and Klallam use of southern Shaw and Orcas islands in the San Juan Islands. Gunther states that none of her informants spoke of settlement or use of these areas, but does admit that there may have been seasonal use of Whidbey Island by the Klallam (Gunther 1927:177). White (1980:15) cites early historical references (Olympia Pioneer Democrat 1853, Farrar 1916, 1917, and Kane 1925) as reporting historic period use of Central Whidbey Island by the Klallam. White (1980:15) summarizes these sources and reports that the Klallam seized part of Ebey's Prairie to grow potatoes and that they had built a fort in the vicinity of the prairie.

Early references show that the territory of the Skagit included the mouth of the Skagit River and Central Whidbey Island (Gibbs 1855:433, Upchurch 1936:284). Gibbs

(1855:433) lists Penn Cove as a major habitation site for the Skagit. When the Swinomish are listed as a subgroup of the Skagit then the Skagit territory can be listed as also including northern Whidbey Island, eastern Fidalgo Island, and the mainland around Swinomish slough (Gibbs 1877:180, Eells 1887:8, Haeberlin and Gunther 1930:6, Fig. 1). Snyder (1964:63) lists Camano Island as part of the Lower Skagit territory. Curtis (1913:174), however, shows the Snohomish as occupying lower Camano Island.

In some later ethnographies, the Skagit are divided into Upper and Lower groups based on their distribution in space. Collins (1974:5) uses Upper and Lower Skagit to distinguish between mainland and Whidbey Island Skagits. Snyder (1964) describes the Lower Skagit as the group which occupied or used the mouth of the Skagit River and portions of the islands to the west in Puget Sound. She uses Upper Skagit to describe Skagit groups which lived upriver from the Skagit Delta tributaries (Snyder 1964:65). This paper follows Snyder's use of the terms, but also uses Lower Skagit and Skagit interchangeably.

Early Historical References to Native Use and Occupation of Central Whidbey Island

Bryan (1955), Bennett (1972). and White (1980) provide good compilations of historical references about Native American use and occupation on Central Whidbey Island. This section provides a summary of this information.

British Captain George Vancouver visited western Washington and the Puget Sound area in 1782 during his exploration of the West Coast and the North Pacific. After visiting Dungeness and southern Puget Sound he arrived in the vicinity of Whidbey Island. He had Joseph Whidbey take a longboat out to explore the Whidbey and Camano Island area. Whidbey's report of native inhabitation at Penn Cove is reported by Vancouver as follows: "On each point of the harbour . . . was a deserted village; in one of which were found several sepulchres formed exactly like a sentry box . . . (Vancouver 1801:167)." Vancouver goes on to describe the burials. He also estimates that the number of inhabitants at Penn Cove probably exceeded . . . the total of all the natives we had before seen; the other parts of the Sound did not appear, by any means, so populous, . . . (Vancouver 1801:167)."

Much later, in 1840, Catholic Missionary Father Blanchet arrived on western Whidbey Island. He met with Skagit Chief Snakelum at Penn Cove and reported on the presence of Skagit gardens of European introduced potatoes (White 1980:33, Bryan 1955:17).

It was in the following year that Charles Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition arrived in Puget Sound (Wilkes 1845). Like Vancouver before him, Wilkes describes Penn Cove as having more native inhabitants than other areas he had visited in the Sound (Wilkes 1845:481).

Wilkes describes a palisade around the village at Penn Cove. Its purpose is said to have been a defense against northern groups who came to raid for slaves. Wilkes also notes the construction of a church at the village and a 3-4 acre enclosure of potatoes and beans (Wilkes 1845:481).

The first Anglo-American settlers; the Ebeys, Crocketts and others came to the prairies of Central Whidbey Island in the early 1850s. Early settler and period accounts summarized in White (1980), Bryan (1955), Collins (1974), and Bennett (1972) show the settlement period as punctuated by Native-Anglo land use disputes, land use disputes between Klallam and Skagit, and finally Anglo displacement of Native groups from the area.

III. HISTORY OF ARCHEOLOGY FOR THE PROJECT AREA

Introduction

Previous archeological work in the project area and on Whidbey Island as a whole has been limited. At the beginning of the century, Smith (1907) reported the location of shell middens in the project area in the vicinity of Penn Cove. At about this time, cairn sites were reported in the project area by Smith and Fowke (1901), as part of the Jesup North archeological and ethnographic expedition to the Pacific Northwest Coast. This early field work was followed by an approximately fifty year period during which no archeological field work was conducted on central Whidbey Island.

In the early 1950's, Alan Bryan, University of Washington, conducted a shoreline archeological survey of Island, Skagit, and Snohomish counties (Bryan 1955, 1963).

Archeological survey and testing has recently been conducted in the project area in two areas of proposed developments in the vicinity of Penn Cove (Jermann 1977a, 1977b, Robinson 1980, 1981).

Finally, to the north outside the project area, Astrida Onat, Seattle Central Community College, has recently completed archeological excavations at a shell midden site, Oak Harbor (Onat, personal communication).

Published reports, unpublished manuscripts, and records on file at the State Historic Preservation Office, Olympia, the Office of Public Archaeology, Seattle, and the Washington Archaeological Research Center, Pullman, have been used as sources of information about sites discussed in this section. Thirty-five sites are currently recorded for the reserve area. A table which lists these sites and their topographic situation and location has been prepared as part of this report. This confidential document is on file with the National Park Service, Northwest Regional Office, Seattle.

Early Archeological Fieldwork

Smith (1907:378) reports on sites he visited in the Gulf of Georgia and the Puget Sound region. He describes three shell middens located in the Penn Cove area of Whidbey Island. Smith and Fowke (1901) visited cairn sites in the Puget Sound area and adjacent areas of British Columbia. A map is included in their report which shows two shell midden and two cairn sites in the Penn Cove area. The text describes ten Whidbey Island cairn sites, but there are no site locations given in the description. One of these sites (Smith and Fowke 1901:58) appears to be the same as the third site listed above by Smith (1907:378).

Bryan's 1950's Survey and Test Excavations

During the early 1950's, Bryan (1955, 1963) conducted a shoreline survey of Island, Skagit, and Snohomish counties. During this survey, ninety-three sites were recorded for Island County. Thirty-five of the thirty-four recorded sites for the Ebey's Landing National Historical Reserve were generated during this survey. The thirty-fifth site, IS-97, is discussed below. All but one of the thirty-four reserve area sites that Bryan recorded are located in the Penn Cove area. The site Bryan recorded outside the Penn Cove area is a shell midden located on Ebey's Prairie (Table 1). Interestingly, all but two sites recorded by Bryan are described as characterized by the presence of shell. These sites may also include associated features such as depressions, burials and cairns. The two sites that are not associated with shell are described as cairns (IS-59, IS-70).

Bryan (1955, 1963) conducted test excavations at nine sites that were located during his shoreline survey. Three former village sites were tested at Penn Cove. Ethnographic information shows that one site, IS-50, was the Skagit village of Caukwala which is reported to have been occupied until 1850 (Bryan 1963:40). Bryan (1963:44) correlated another site, (IS-77), with a Skagit village mapped by Charles Wilkes (nd:90) as having been inhabited in 1841. The third site, (IS-13), is reported to have been the main historic period Lower Skagit village site (Bryan 1963:47).

In the absence of explicitly stated research goals, Bryan appears to have undertaken his early 1950s shoreline survey in order to locate suitable sites for excavation. Sites were probably selected because they stratified and exhibited potential for artifact recovery. With his admittedly meager test excavation results (Bryan 1963:81,89), formulates a chronological sequence consisting of: 1) Coastal Land Hunting culture, 2) an Intermediate (land and maritime culture), and 3) a Late/Recent/Historic sequence showing culture shift from a maritime culture to a re-emphasis of land resources (Bryan 1963:89). Bryan goes on to correlate this sequence with King's (1950) sequence for the San Juan Islands and Borden's (1951) for the Frazer River Delta (Bryan 1963:89).

Bryan's ordering should not be confused with the ordering of sites created by a frequency distribution of stylistic types in time. Instead, Bryan has used an assortment of traits such as the presence or absence of ground stone and flaked lithic artifacts, and the relative frequency of unmodified bone and shell in a component to make inferences about prehistoric adaptations.

Recent Fieldwork

In 1977, the Office of Public Archeology, University of Washington, was contracted to conduct a field investigation and a literature search for sites in an area of proposed marina development at Penn Cove (Jermann 1977a, 1977b). Three previously recorded sites, IS-58, IS-60 and IS-61, were reported in the project area, and one previously unrecorded site was located during field investigations (Jermann 1977b:2). While the topographic situation of the new site is described, the site itself is not.

Robinson (1980, 1981) reports on archeological fieldwork conducted in 1980 prior to proposed highway construction along State Route 20 between Libbey Road and Madrona Way and along State Route 20 between Madrona Way and Penn Cove Road (Scenic Heights Road). Due to the reported presence of cairns located north of Libby Road (no reference or site number is given), infra-red and natural color aerial photographs were taken of areas adjacent to the proposed construction (Robinson 1977b:unpaginated). Soil samples were then taken in areas of enigmatic patterning. High priority test sites were then selected on the basis of soil sample analysis. The test excavation results are reported to have been negative; however, Robinson does report a light scattering of shell for several of the test units (Robinson 1981:unpaginated).

The thirty-fifth and only site (IS-97) that has been recorded for the reserve area since Bryan's mid-1950's survey is located in the Libby Road vicinity near State Route 20. It is a shell scatter and appears to have been located before or during the highway construction described by Robinson (1980, 1981). It was recorded in 1982 by E. Chesmore and H. Jackson.

Discussion

With the exception of site IS-97, all of the previously recorded sites for the area of Central Whidbey Island now included in the Ebey's Landing National Reserve were located about 30 years ago by Bryan during his three county shore line survey (Bryan 1955, 1963). Because of the survey's shoreline nature, most of our information about the distribution of sites for Central Whidbey Island is limited to a knowledge of sites which, for the most part, are located in a littoral environment at Penn Cove. We have little information about the distribution of sites on the uplands and prairies of Central Whidbey Island. We do know that most of the sites Bryan located at Penn Cove are high density artifact clusters represented by large accumulations of unmodified shell artifacts. It would be of interest to sample the prairies and uplands to determine what other types of sites are represented on Central Whidbey Island. The presently available information on recorded sites for the reserve area shows that five sites are located outside a littoral environment at Penn Cove (1S-54, IS-77, IS-59, IS-88, IS-97). Four are sites reported to be located on prairies in the Penn Cove area; the fifth site is located on Ebey's Prairie. While a sample size of five is small, the distribution of these sites may represent a different land use from the sites located on Penn Cove. Like the sites on Penn Cove, the prairie sites are described as shell mounds, shell scatters, and cairns. Since no formal comparisons have been made among the sites, it is not possible to assess the relationships among the sites at this point.

Because information about variability in the range of site types and their distribution in space is not available for Central Whidbey Island, it is not possible to identify settlement patterns and prehistoric land use for the area. If the research interest is in examining changing prehistoric adaptations through time, as represented in changing land use and settlement patterns, then a regional scale analysis would be appropriate. In this approach, the region would be sampled and the resulting distribution of sites could be correlated with environmental variables and analyzed for intersite functional variability. Temporal control such as the analysis of stylistic types and the use of radiocarbon dates would be necessary to articulate contemporary but functionally distinct sites in a system of contemporaneous prehistoric land use.

It is useful to note here that the sites recorded for Central Whidbey Island may be part of an adaptation that may have extended beyond Whidbey Island. Other settlement types in a contemporaneous system might be expected to be located on the mainland, on other islands, and in areas of Whidbey Island outside the project area. Thompson (1978) has analyzed prehistoric settlement patterns in neighboring Skagit county. This analysis may prove useful in developing a research design for a study of settlement patterns on Central Whidbey Island.

Previously published and unpublished reports do show that good potential exists for identifying sites on the prairie areas of central Whidbey Island. In discussing lithic artifacts from the area, Bryan speaks of a number of projectile points in private collections. These are said to have come from the "plowed ground on the natural prairies in the Penn Cove area (Bryan 1963:54)."

Two unpublished manuscripts on file with the Office of Public Archeology, University of Washington (Kidd 1961, Holmes and Kidd 1961), also describe lithic artifacts such as projectile points from private collections of Central Whidbey Island residents. Artifacts in these collections come from "the prairies around Penn Cove", "Ebey's Prairie" and "Crockett Lake." Other references give site locations in reference to named private residences (Kidd 1961:unpaginated, Holmes and Kidd 1961:unpaginated).

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